Theory And Methods

Question 1

Quantitative Methods in Research- Positivism

Answer 1

• Positivists:
  =society is objective
  =discover cause and effects that explain behavioural patterns
  =sociology should follow natural sciences
  =use quantitative data
  =data is reliable and representative

Question 2

Quantitative Methods in Research- Laboratory Experiments

Answer 2

Overview=artificial / control variables / causal laws / experimental group and control

• Practical issues:
  =closed system- only relevant to these as variables can be controlled
  =unique individuals
  =studying past impossible
  =small samples
  =Hawthorne effect
• Ethical issues:
  =informed consent / protection from physical and psych harm
• Theoretical issues:
  =reliable- standardised / quantitative / objective
  =not representative- small samples / lack external validity

Question 3

Quantitative Methods in Research- Field Experiments

Answer 3

Overview=natural surroundings / do not know in an experiment / researcher manipulates variables

• Actor and correspondence tests:
  Brown+Gay=test discrimination in employment- different races same job to see if internal racism
• Comparative method:
  Alternative to lab
  =carried out in mind of sociologist
  =identifies two groups that are alike except one variable
  =compares them to see if has any effect

Question 4

Quantitative Methods in Research- Questionnaires

Answer 4

• Practical issues:
  =quick, cheap, easy
  =don’t need to recruit interviewers
  =easily quantified data
  =data limited and superficial
  =low response rates
• Theoretical issues- Positivism:
  =hypothesis testing- quantitative data
  =reliable
  =not representative as low response rate
  =generalisability- dependent on sample
  =objective
  =few ethical issues
• Interpretivism and questionnaires:
  Cannot yield valid data as no meanings
  =detachment- reject objectivity as need subjective understanding
  =imposing meanings
  =lying, forgetting, trying to impress- lowers validity

Question 5

Quantitative Methods in Research- Structured Interviews

Answer 5

=structured- standardised questions
=unstructured- open-ended
=semi-structured- mix both
=group- relatively unstructured

• Practical issues:
  =quick and cheap
  =response rates higher
  =only snapshots taken at one time
• Ethical issues:
  =pressure to answer- conformity
  =informed consent and confidentiality
• Theoretical issues- Positivism:
  =hypothesis testing due to cause and effect
  =reliable as standardised
  =unrepresentative as interviewees untypical
• Interpretivist criticisms:
  =lack validity
  =cannot uncover meanings
• Feminist criticisms:
  =relationship between interviewer and interviewee reflects exploitative nature patriarchal relationships
  =impose research categories
• Interviews as social interactions:
  =status differences- honesty
  =cultural differences- misunderstanding
  =social desirability
  =interviewer bias

Question 6

Quantitative Methods in Research- Official Statistics

Answer 6

=quantitative data created by government or other offices bodies- used in policy making

• Practical issues:
  + easily accessed data for free
  + collected at regular intervals showing trends
  ~ definitions different from sociologists
  ~ no stats available on sociologists topics
• Theoretical issues- Positivism:
  =Positivists- reliable, objective social facts- can develop and test hypotheses
  =representative as large scale and good samples
  =reliable as standardised
• Theoretical issues- Interpretivism:
  =reject claim they are social facts because social constructs
  =soft stats- less valid compiled from decisions of agencies
  =hard stats- more valid
• Marxism and stats:
  =serve interests of capitalism
  =perform ideological function
  =definitions conceal reality of capitalism
• Feminism and stats:
  =patriarchal model of research
  =created by state maintains patriarchal oppression- legitimating gender inequality

Question 7

Qualitative Methods in Research- Interpretivism

Answer 7

• We can only understand people’s actions if we understand their meanings- qualitative methods reveal meanings
  =reject claim society is objective reality out there

Question 8

Qualitative Methods in Research- Unstructured Interviews

Answer 8

=no standardised format- rich data that gives insight into meanings and world of interviewee

• Practical issues:
  =training needs to be more thorough
  =time-consuming
  =flexible with more opportunity for elaboration
• Theoretical issues- Interpretivism:
  =involvement- more valid data
  =interviewees can raise issues
  =open-ended questions can reveal true meanings
• Theoretical issues- Positivism:
  =unreliable as not standardised
  =hard to quantify data
  =not representative/generalisable as small samples

Question 9

Qualitative Methods in Research- Participant Observation

Answer 9

=researcher observes while taking part in the group

• Getting in (win group’s trust)/ staying in (involved in group but remain objective)/ getting out
• Practical issues:
  Insight / access / flexibility / practical limitations determine whether use PO
  =overt PO- behave normally/Hawthorne effect/restricted access
  =covert PO- maintain act/take notes in secret/cannot risk altering group’s behaviour
• Theoretical issues:
  =valid due to involvement and flexible/grounded (Interpretivists)
  =unrepresentative as small sample, unreliable as not standardised and bias/lacks objectivity (Positivists)- would prefer NPO
• Ethical issues:
  =deception / cannot gain informed consent / protection from harm

Question 10

Qualitative Methods in Research- Documents

Answer 10

=public documents- governments / schools
=personal documents- first-person accounts of events
=historical documents

• Practical issues:
  =quick and cheap for large data
  =difficulty accessing
  =may not answer sociologist’s questions
• Theoretical issues:
  =valid picture of meanings (Interpretivists)
  =may lack validity due to authenticity/credibility/misinterpretation (Positivists)
  =unreliable as not standardised- P
  =unrepresentative
• Ethical issues:
  =informed consent varies- difficult for private documents but not for public
• Content analysis:
  method of analysing documents
  =formal content analysis- quant from qual- Positivists like as objective and representative
  =thematic analysis- qual from texts- Interpretivists as reveal meanings through themes

Question 11

Sociology and Science- Positivism

Answer 11

• Apply logic and methods of natural sciences to study of sociology to solve social problems and achieve progress
  =society is objective factual reality
  =studied through systematic observation and measurement
  =discover general laws
• Positivist methods:
  Natural science experimental method as test hypothesis in systematic way
  =quantitative- laws of cause and effect
  =experiments and official stats- objectivity and detachment

Question 12

Sociology and Science- Interpretivism

Answer 12

• Do not believe sociology should adopt methods of natural sciences as unsuited to study of human beings
  =internal meanings
  =science only laws of cause and effect
• Subject matter of sociology:
  =natural sciences study matter with no consciousness, sociology study people with consciousness
• Interpretivist methods:
  Uncover meanings via verstehen (empathetic understanding)
• Versions of interpretivism:
  =interactionists- causal explanations via bottom-up
  =phenomenologists/ethnomethodologists- reject causal explanations as society not real thing out there
• Postmodernism and feminism:
  =Postmodernists reject sociology as science because meta-narrative- big story claiming monopoly of truth

Question 13

Sociology and Science- Karl Popper

Answer 13

• Falsificationism=a statement is scientific if it can be proven false by the evidence
• A falsifiable theory must be open to criticism so that flaws can be exposed and better theories developed
• Implications for sociology:
  =Marx’s theory of a revolution cannot be falsified
  =sociology can be scientific by producing testable hypotheses

Question 14

Sociology and Science- Thomas Kuhn

Answer 14

• Paradigm=shared framework of beliefs held by members given scientific community
• Paradigm defines what science is and scientists are socialised into it- science cannot exist without shared paradigm
  =normal science- paradigm does not go unquestioned and allows accumulation of knowledge
  =if too many anomalies are found, confidence in the paradigm declines
  =science enters period of crisis
  =scientific revolution occurs
• Implications for sociology:
  =sociology not a science as multiple paradigms- only could become science if disagreements resolved

Question 15

Sociology and Science- Realism and Science

Answer 15

• Similarity between sociology and natural sciences due to degree of control over variables being researched
• Closed system=researcher controls and measures variables and make precise predictions
• Open system=researcher cannot control and measure variables and cannot make precise predictions
  =sociologists study open systems
  =Realists reject positivist view science concerned with observable phenomena

Question 16

Objectivity and Values- Classical Sociologists and Values

Answer 16

• Weber=values can neither be proved or disproved by the facts- they belong to different realms
  =values as a guide to research- areas of study selected in terms of value relevance
  =data collection and hypothesis testing- must be as objective as possible
  =values in interpretation of data- facts influenced by sociologist’s values
  =values and sociologist as a citizen- cannot dodge oral issues by hiding behind value freedom
• Values are relevant when research topic, research method and use findings put to

Question 17

Objectivity and Values- Value Freedom and Commitment

Answer 17

• 20th century positivists:
  =values irrelevant to research as science concerned with matters of fact
  Gouldner=sociologists became spiritless technicians so as to dodge moral issues their work raised
• Committed sociology:
  =sociologists should identify values and openly take sides
• Whose side are we on:
  =functionalists/positivists- powerful
  =Becker- underdog- should be committed to ending their oppression
• Funding and careers:
  =government funded research may control direction and what questions asked of the topic
• Relativism and postmodernism:
  =no group has special access to the truth- any that claims to are just a meta-narrative based on values and assumptions

Question 18

Functionalism- Durkheim

Answer 18

• Traditional society=mechanical solidarity with little division of labour and everyone is alike- strong collective conscience
• Modern society=complex division of labour promoting differences between groups and weakening social solidarity- freedom must be regulated to prevent egoism destroying social bonds
• Rapid change=undermining old norms throwing people into state of anomie that threatens social cohesion
• Social facts=society is a separate entity existing over and above its members with external social facts shaping their behaviour to serve society’s needs

Question 19

Functionalism- Society as a System- Organic Analogy

Answer 19

• Parsons
• System
  organisms and societies are self-regulating systems of independent parts that fit together in fixed ways
  Body=organs Society=institutions
• System needs
  Social system has basic needs that must be met if it is to survive
• Functions
  Contribution it makes to meeting system needs and ensuring survival

Question 20

Functionalism- Society as a System- Value Consensus and Social Order

Answer 20

• social order achieved through agreement on (value consensus) shared culture/central value system
• culture=set of norms, values, beliefs, goals shared by members of society
• social order only possible if value consensus=agreement on norms and values

Question 21

Functionalism- Society as a System- Integration of Individuals

Answer 21

• value consensus to make social order possible=integrating into social system=directing them towards meeting society’s needs
• Parsons- ensuring conformity to norms and meeting needs- socialisation
  teaching individuals to want to do what system requires they do
  internalise norms and values=society part of personality
• Parsons- ensuring conformity to norms and meeting needs- social control
  positive sanctions reward conformity
  negative sanctions punish deviance

Question 22

Functionalism- Society as a System- Parts of Social System

Answer 22

• Parsons building block approach
  actions governed by norms
  cluster norms=status roles
  cluster status role=institution
  cluster institution=sub-systems
  cluster sub-systems=social system

Question 23

Functionalism- Society as a System- System’s needs

Answer 23

• Parsons AGIL schema:
• A- adaptation
  meets material needs through economic sub-system
• G- goal attainment
  setting goals and allocating resources falls to political sub-system
• I- integration
  different parts of system integrated together pursue shared goals=religious sub-system
• L- latency
  processes that maintain society=kinship sub-system- pattern maintenance and tension management
• adaptation and goal attainment=instrumental needs
• integration and latency=expressive needs

Question 24

Functionalism- Society as a System- Social Change

Answer 24

• Parsons=traditional society
  collective interests / ascribed status / particularistic standards
• Parsons=modern society
  individual interest / achieved status / universalistic standards
• Society change=gradual, evolutionary process of increasing complexity and structural differentiation (gradual process in which separate, functionally specialised institutions develop, each meeting different need)
• Gradual change also occurring through dynamic equilibrium=as change in one part of system, compensatory changes in other parts- rise in industry=extended to nuclear

Question 25

Functionalism- Merton’s Internal Critique

Answer 25

• Indispensability:
  Parsons assumes everything in society is functionally indispensable in existing form
  =untested assumption- functional alternatives
• Functional unity:
  Parsons assumes parts of society tightly integrated into single whole and each part functional for rest / change=knock-on-effect on other parts
  =neither assumption true- some parts have functional autonomy
• Universal functionalism:
  Parsons assumes everything in society performs positive function
  =some things dysfunctional/conflicts of interest
• Manifest (intended) and latent (unintended) functions=hidden connections between social phenomena

Question 26

Functionalism- External Critiques- Logical

Answer 26

• Teleological=things exist because of their effect/function
• Cause must come before effect but functionalism=effect before cause
• Unscientific=Popper-unfalsifiability=deviance cannot be both functional and dysfunctional

Question 27

Functionalism- External Critiques- Conflict Perspective (Marxists)

Answer 27

• Inability to explain conflict and change due to organic analogy
• Society is not a harmonious whole=based on exploitation and divided into classes with conflicting interests and unequal power
• Conservative ideology legitimating status quo=helps justify existing social order as inevitable and desirable

Question 28

Functionalism- External Critiques- Action Perspectives

Answer 28

• Wong=deterministic=individuals are mere puppets whose strings are being pulled by the social system
  individuals actually create society by their interactions
• Functionalism refies society=treats it as a distinct thing over and above individuals, with its own needs
  society is not a thing out there with its own independent existence

Question 29

Functionalism- External Critiques- Postmodernism

Answer 29

• Assumes society is stable and orderly but cannot account for diversity and instability in today’s postmodern society
• Functionalism=meta-narrative but overall theory not possible as society so fragmented

Question 30

Marxism- Marx’s Ideas

Answer 30

• Historical materialism=humans are beings with material needs and must work to meet them using forces of production- as this develops, a division forms between two classes
• Class society and exploitation:
  =primitive communism- no classes
  =feudal society- exploitation of serfs tied to the land
  =capitalist society- exploitation of free wage labourers
  =socialist society
  =communist society
• Capitalism=division between bourgeoisie and proletariat
• Class consciousness=proletariat aware of need to overthrow capitalism
• Ideology=powerful set of beliefs of economically dominant class
• Alienation=loss of control over the products of our labour and separatism from our true creative nature
• The state protects the interests of the owners who control it- revolution would abolish the state and create a classless society

Question 31

Marxism- Marx’s Ideas- Criticisms

Answer 31

• Class:
  =status and power differences are also important sources of inequality
  =two-class model is too simplistic
• Economic determinism:
  =fails to recognise humans have free will and can bring about change through conscious actions
  =predictions of a revolution have not come true

Question 32

Marxism- Gramsci and Hegemony

Answer 32

• Hegemony=ideological and moral leadership- explains how ruling class maintain position
  =coercion- CJS forces classes to accept its rule
  =consent- uses ideas to persuade lower classes that their rule is legitimate
• Ruling class hegemony never complete because:
  =ruling class are minority and have to make ideological compromises
  =proletariat have dual consciousness- seeing through dominant ideology
  =only lead to revolution if proletariat construct counter-hegemonic bloc to win leadership of society- producing own organic intellectuals

Question 33

Marxism- Althusser’s Structuralist Marxism

Answer 33

• Criticisms of the base-superstructure model:
  =economic level- activities that involve producing something to satisfy a need
  =political level- all forms of organisation
  =ideological level- ways that people see themselves in their world
• Ideological state apparatus=manipulate W/C into accepting capitalism as legitimate
• Repressive state apparatus=coerce W/C into complying with will of bourgeoisie
• Criticisms of humanism:
  =humans are merely puppets and unseen structures are hidden puppet masters determining thoughts and actions
  =socialism will come about because of over-determination- contradictions in the structures that occur relatively independently of each other

Question 34

Feminism- Liberal

Answer 34

=believe women can achieve gender equality through reform and promoting equal rights

• Cultural change:
  Traditional prejudices and stereotypes about gender differences are barriers to equality
• Sex and gender:
  =sex- biological differences between males and females
  =gender- culturally constructed differences between masculine and feminine roles/identities assigned to males and females
• Socialisation:
  Sexual attitudes and stereotypical beliefs about gender are culturally constructed and transmitted
  =change socialisation patterns
  =actions will produce social change and equality will become the norm
  =men and women are equally capable of performing the same roles

Question 35

Feminism- Radical

Answer 35

=patriarchy (male domination) is universal- Firestone argues lies in bio. capacity to bear and care for infants
=patriarchy is fundamental
=all men oppress all women
=patriarchal oppression is direct and personal

• Sexual politics:
  =all relationships involve power and are political when one tries to dominate another
  =patriarchy socially constructs sexuality so as to satisfy men’s desires
• Women’s liberation:
  =separatism- living apart from men and creating new culture of female independence
  =consciousness-raising- lead to collective action
  =political lesbianism- having relations with women to avoid sleeping with the enemy

Question 36

Feminism- Marxism

Answer 36

=women’s subordination is rooted in capitalism- results from primary role of homemaker placing them in dependent economic position

• Functions for capitalism:
  =reserve army of labour- cheap, exploitable labour
  =absorbing male workers’ anger
  =reproduction of labour
• Ideological factors:
  =ideology of familism- presents nuclear family and sexual division of labour as normal
  =overthrow of capitalism necessary to secure women’s liberation
  =femininity and the unconscious- very difficult to dislodge=hard to overcome deeply rooted patriarchal ideology

Question 37

Feminism- Dual Systems

Answer 37

=see capitalism and patriarchy as two intertwined systems- they reinforce each other

• Capitalism demands cheap, exploitable female labour for workforce
• Patriarchy wants to keep women subordinated within domestic sphere

Question 38

Feminism- Difference

Answer 38

=differences of class, ethnicity, sexuality lead to different experiences of patriarchy

• Previous feminist theories claimed a false universality- claims to apply to all women but in reality only white, heterosexual M/C women
• Essentialism=other feminisms see all women as the same- fail to reflect diversity of women’s experiences

Question 39

Feminism- Poststructuralist

Answer 39

=concerned with discourses- ways of speaking, thinking or seeing something
Gives power over those it defines
The enlightenment project is a form of knowledge that legitimates domination of white M/C males

• Anti-essentialism:
  =no fixed essence of what it is to be a woman as different discourses in times and cultures
  =enables feminists to de-construct different discourses to reveal how they subordinate women

Question 40

Action Theories- Max Weber: Social Action Theory- Overview

Answer 40

• Structural and action approaches to understand human behaviour
• The level of cause
  Objective structural factors that shape behaviour
  e.g Protestant reformation, Calvinism=changes in behaviour
• The level of meaning
  Subjective meanings individuals attach to actions
  e.g work=religious meaning for Calvinists as calling by God=accumulated wealth=first modern capitalists

Question 41

Action Theories- Max Weber: Social Action Theory- Types Of Action

Answer 41

• Instrumentally rational action
  Actor calculates most efficient means achieving goal
• Value-rational action
  Toward goal actor regards as desirable for own sake
• Traditional action
  Customary, routine or habitual action
• Affectual action
  Expresses emotion

Question 42

Action Theories- Max Weber: Social Action Theory- Evaluation

Answer 42

• Schutz- too individualistic, cannot explain shared nature of meanings
• Typology of action difficult to apply- may be seen as multiple actions
• Verstehen criticised as we can never actually be that other person

Question 43

Action Theories- Symbolic Interactionism- Mead

Answer 43

• Symbolic interactionism
  How we create social world through interactions
  Based on meanings given to situations, conveyed through symbols
• Symbols vs instincts
  Respond to world by giving meanings to significant things- creating world of meanings by attaching symbols to things
  Interpretive phase between stimulus and our response to it (interpretation of meaning)
• Taking the role of the other
  Interpret others meanings by taking their role
  Ability develops through interaction

Question 44

Action Theories- Symbolic Interactionism- Blumer

Answer 44

• Three key principles of interactionism:
  Actions based on meanings we give to situations
  Meanings arise from interactions- somewhat negotiable/changeable
  Meanings we give are result of taking role of the other
• Blumer- although action partly predictable as we internalise expectations, always room for choice in performance of roles

Question 45

Action Theories- Symbolic Interactionism- Labelling Theory

Answer 45

• Definition of the situation
  Defining something labels it
  Thomas- if define situation as real, it has real consequences
• Looking-glass self
  Cooley- self-concept arises out of ability to take role of other
  See ourself mirrored in how respond to us / become what they see us as
• Career
  Becker+Lemert- pre-patient / labelling by psychiatrist / hospital in-patient / discharge / mental patient=master status
• Accused of determinism

Question 46

Action Theories- Symbolic Interactionism- Goffman’s Dramaturgical Model- Impression Management

Answer 46

• Goffman=how we actively construct our self by manipulating other peoples impression of us
• Dramaturgical=uses analogies with drama as framework for analysing social interaction
  Actors / scripts / props
• Presentation of self=present particular image of ourselves to audience- constantly studying them and adjusting performance to convince
• Impression management=tone of voice / gestures / settings / props
• Front-stage=act out our roles
• Backstage=step out of role and be ourselves

Question 47

Action Theories- Symbolic Interactionism- Goffman’s Dramaturgical Model- Roles

Answer 47

• Functionalists=roles are tightly scripted by society and fully internalise scripts through socialisation
• Goffman=role distance between real self and roles- we are not really the roles we play
  Roles loosely scripted by society and have freedom in how we play them
• Do not always believe in roles we play- may be calculating and manipulating audience into accepting impression that conceals true self/real motives

Question 48

Action Theories- Symbolic Interactionism- Evaluation

Answer 48

• Avoids determinism, recognising people create society through choices/meanings
• Loose collection of descriptive concepts than explanation
• Ignores wider social structures and cannot explain consistent patterns of behaviour
• Everyone plays both actor and audience with interactions often improvised and unrehearsed

Question 49

Action Theories- Phenomenology- Husserl’s Philosophy

Answer 49

• Phenomenon=describes things as appear to our senses- all we can know of world is what senses tell us about it
• Husserl=world only makes sense as impose meaning and order by constructing metal categories used to class and file info from senses
• The world as we know it and can only be a product of our mind

Question 50

Action Theories- Phenomenology- Schutz’s Phenomenological Sociology- Typifications

Answer 50

• Typifications=shared categories- enable us to organise experiences into shared world of meaning
• Meaning of action varies according to its social context- meaning given by context so potentially unclear / unstable
• Typifications make social order possible=give members of society shared life world of common sense knowledge that use to make sense experience
• Recipe knowledge=we can follow life world without thinking too much, using it to make sense of everyday world
• Social world=shared inter-subjective world only exists when share same meanings

Question 51

Action Theories- Phenomenology- Schutz’s Phenomenological Sociology- Natural Attitude

Answer 51

• Society appears to us a real objective thing existing outside of us
• Natural attitude=leading us to assume social world is a solid, natural thing out there- all involved in process share same meaning and allows cooperation to achieve goals
• Berger+Luckmann=although reality socially constructed, once constructed, takes on life of its own and becomes external reality reacts back on us

Question 52

Action Theories- Ethnomethodology- Indexicality and Reflexivity

Answer 52

• Garfinkel=social order is created from the bottom-up / social order is an accomplishment- constructed in life using common-sense knowledge
• Indexicality=meanings are always potentially unclear- everything depends on the context
  =threat to social order as communication and cooperation may break down
• Reflexivity=the fact that we use commonsense knowledge in everyday interactions to construct a sense of meaning and stop indexicality
  =language vital to achieve this

Question 53

Action Theories- Ethnomethodology- Experiments in Disrupting Social Order

Answer 53

• Garfinkel=demonstrate nature of social order by breaching experiments
  =disrupt people’s sense of order and challenge reflexivity by undermining assumptions about situations
  =orderliness everyday situations are accomplishment of those who take part in them

Question 54

Action Theories- Ethnomethodology- Suicide and Reflexivity

Answer 54

• Coroners make sense of deaths by picking features from facts about the deceased- treating them as real pattern
  =coroner interprets future cases with same pattern
  =pattern becomes self-reinforcing

Question 55

Action Theories- Ethnomethodology- Evaluation

Answer 55

+draws attention to how actively construct order and meaning, rather than seeing us as puppets
~trivial findings
~ignores how wider structures of power and inequality affect meanings that individuals construct

Question 56

Action Theories- Structure and Action- Giddens’ Structuration Theory

Answer 56

• Duality of structure=structure and action cannot exist without the other
• Structuration=through actions we produce structures over time and space, while structures are what make actions possible in first place
  =language=our action (communication) depends on the existence of the structure (language rules)
  =language=our actions (speaking and writing) change the structure (new meanings/rules)

Question 57

Globalisation, Modernity and Postmodernity- Modernity and Globalisation

Answer 57

• The Enlightenment project=through reason and science, we can discover true knowledge and progress to a better society
• Characteristics modern society:
  =nation state / capitalism / mass production / scientific thinking / technology / individualism / decline tradition
• Globalisation:
  =economic changes- growth in TNC’s drives globalisation
  =technological changes- time-space compression of internet and air travel
  =political changes- fall of communism lead to global capitalism
  =changes in culture and identity

Question 58

Globalisation, Modernity and Postmodernity- Postmodernity

Answer 58

• Knowledge:
  =no objective criteria to prove whether a theory is true- anyone claiming to have it is only a meta-narrative
• The Enlightenment project:
  =media creates a hyper-reality- its signs appear more real than reality itself
• Culture and identity:
  =media produces endless stream of images making culture unstable and fragmented- people cease to believe one version of the truth
  =identity can be changed by changing our consumption patterns
• Criticisms:
  =ignores use of media by M/C as ideological domination
  =wrong to claim cannot distinguish between reality and media

Question 59

Globalisation, Modernity and Postmodernity- Theories of Late Modernity

Answer 59

=today’s rapid changes are a continuation of modern society

• Giddens- reflexivity and high modernity:
  =disembedding- lifting out of social relations from local contexts of interaction
  =reflexivity- tradition and custom no longer serve as guide to how we should act- reflect on and modify actions in light of info on risks
• Late modernity and risk:
  =facing new high consequence risks- manufactured risks as result from technology not nature
  =rational plans based on objective knowledge to reduce risks and achieve progress

Question 60

Globalisation, Modernity and Postmodernity- Marxist Theories of Postmodernity

Answer 60

=believe in Enlightenment project of achieving objective knowledge to improve society- moved to postmodernity but it is most recent stage of capitalism

• Flexible accumulation:
  =new way of achieving profitability using ICT, job insecurity and working flexibly to fit employers needs
  =customised products promote cultural diversity
  =leisure, culture and identity become commodities
  =brings about political changes

Question 61

Sociology and Social Policy- Social Problems

Answer 61

• Worsley- some piece of social behaviour that causes public friction/private misery and calls for collective action to solve it
• e.g poverty / crime / divorce

Question 62

Sociology and Social Policy- Sociological Problems

Answer 62

• Worsley- any pattern of relationship that calls for explanation
• e.g why some people are poor or commit crime / why people are prosperous or law-abiding

Question 63

Sociology and Social Policy- The Influence of Sociology on Policy- Electoral Popularity

Answer 63

• research findings and recommendations might point to a policy that would be unpopular with voters

Question 64

Sociology and Social Policy- The Influence of Sociology on Policy- Ideological and Policy Preferences of Governments

Answer 64

• if the researcher’s value-stance/perspective is similar to the political ideology of the government, they may stand more chance of influencing its policies

Question 65

Sociology and Social Policy- The Influence of Sociology on Policy- Cost

Answer 65

• the government may not have sufficient funds to implement an appropriate policy based on the sociologists research findings

Question 66

Sociology and Social Policy- The Influence of Sociology on Policy- The Power to Define the Problem

Answer 66

• those with power are the ones who are able to define what is/is not a problem, and if anything should be done about it

Question 67

Sociology and Social Policy- Perspectives- Positivism and Functionalism

Answer 67

• sociologists role=provide state with objective, scientific information
• by investigating social problems and discovering their causes=provide necessary info on which state can base its policies
• ‘piecemeal social engineering’ policies- cautious approach that tackles one issue at a time
• Marxists- social problems=aspects of class inequality so need to change structure of society to solve the problems

Question 68

Sociology and Social Policy- Perspectives- Social Democratic Perspective

Answer 68

• Townsend- sociologists should research social problems and make policy recommendations to eradicate them
• Marxists- capitalism is responsible for inequalities so problems cannot be solved without abolishing capitalism
  Postmodernists- impossible to discover objective truth

Question 69

Sociology and Social Policy- Perspectives- Marxism

Answer 69

• the state represents the ruling class and its social policies serve the interests of capitalism
• policies provide ideological legitimation to mask capitalist exploitation
• policies maintain the labour force for further exploitation
• policies are a means of preventing revolution
• sociologists main role=criticise capitalist social policy
• social democrats- research can help bring about progressive policies within capitalist system

Question 70

Sociology and Social Policy- Perspectives- Feminism

Answer 70

• the state perpetuates women’s subordination through its social policies
• many policies reflect the liberal feminist view that anti-discrimination reforms will bring about gender equality
• Marxist and radical feminists- more far-reaching changes that the existing state cannot deliver

Question 71

Sociology and Social Policy- Perspectives- New Right

Answer 71

• the state should have minimal involvement in society- opposed to using state provision of welfare to deal with social problems
• Murray- generous welfare benefits act as ‘perverse incentives’
• highly critical of existing policies but see role of sociologists as proposing alternative policies
• New Right thinking attractive to Conservative Party
• New Right policy proposals use findings of politically sympathetic think tanks