Theory And Methods Flashcards
1
Q
Quantitative Methods in Research- Positivism
A
- Positivists:
=society is objective
=discover cause and effects that explain behavioural patterns
=sociology should follow natural sciences
=use quantitative data
=data is reliable and representative
2
Q
Quantitative Methods in Research- Laboratory Experiments
A
Overview=artificial / control variables / causal laws / experimental group and control
- Practical issues:
=closed system- only relevant to these as variables can be controlled
=unique individuals
=studying past impossible
=small samples
=Hawthorne effect - Ethical issues:
=informed consent / protection from physical and psych harm - Theoretical issues:
=reliable- standardised / quantitative / objective
=not representative- small samples / lack external validity
3
Q
Quantitative Methods in Research- Field Experiments
A
Overview=natural surroundings / do not know in an experiment / researcher manipulates variables
- Actor and correspondence tests:
Brown+Gay=test discrimination in employment- different races same job to see if internal racism - Comparative method:
Alternative to lab
=carried out in mind of sociologist
=identifies two groups that are alike except one variable
=compares them to see if has any effect
4
Q
Quantitative Methods in Research- Questionnaires
A
- Practical issues:
=quick, cheap, easy
=don’t need to recruit interviewers
=easily quantified data
=data limited and superficial
=low response rates - Theoretical issues- Positivism:
=hypothesis testing- quantitative data
=reliable
=not representative as low response rate
=generalisability- dependent on sample
=objective
=few ethical issues - Interpretivism and questionnaires:
Cannot yield valid data as no meanings
=detachment- reject objectivity as need subjective understanding
=imposing meanings
=lying, forgetting, trying to impress- lowers validity
5
Q
Quantitative Methods in Research- Structured Interviews
A
=structured- standardised questions
=unstructured- open-ended
=semi-structured- mix both
=group- relatively unstructured
- Practical issues:
=quick and cheap
=response rates higher
=only snapshots taken at one time - Ethical issues:
=pressure to answer- conformity
=informed consent and confidentiality - Theoretical issues- Positivism:
=hypothesis testing due to cause and effect
=reliable as standardised
=unrepresentative as interviewees untypical - Interpretivist criticisms:
=lack validity
=cannot uncover meanings - Feminist criticisms:
=relationship between interviewer and interviewee reflects exploitative nature patriarchal relationships
=impose research categories - Interviews as social interactions:
=status differences- honesty
=cultural differences- misunderstanding
=social desirability
=interviewer bias
6
Q
Quantitative Methods in Research- Official Statistics
A
=quantitative data created by government or other offices bodies- used in policy making
- Practical issues:
+ easily accessed data for free
+ collected at regular intervals showing trends
~ definitions different from sociologists
~ no stats available on sociologists topics - Theoretical issues- Positivism:
=Positivists- reliable, objective social facts- can develop and test hypotheses
=representative as large scale and good samples
=reliable as standardised - Theoretical issues- Interpretivism:
=reject claim they are social facts because social constructs
=soft stats- less valid compiled from decisions of agencies
=hard stats- more valid - Marxism and stats:
=serve interests of capitalism
=perform ideological function
=definitions conceal reality of capitalism - Feminism and stats:
=patriarchal model of research
=created by state maintains patriarchal oppression- legitimating gender inequality
7
Q
Qualitative Methods in Research- Interpretivism
A
- We can only understand people’s actions if we understand their meanings- qualitative methods reveal meanings
=reject claim society is objective reality out there
8
Q
Qualitative Methods in Research- Unstructured Interviews
A
=no standardised format- rich data that gives insight into meanings and world of interviewee
- Practical issues:
=training needs to be more thorough
=time-consuming
=flexible with more opportunity for elaboration - Theoretical issues- Interpretivism:
=involvement- more valid data
=interviewees can raise issues
=open-ended questions can reveal true meanings - Theoretical issues- Positivism:
=unreliable as not standardised
=hard to quantify data
=not representative/generalisable as small samples
9
Q
Qualitative Methods in Research- Participant Observation
A
=researcher observes while taking part in the group
- Getting in (win group’s trust)/ staying in (involved in group but remain objective)/ getting out
- Practical issues:
Insight / access / flexibility / practical limitations determine whether use PO
=overt PO- behave normally/Hawthorne effect/restricted access
=covert PO- maintain act/take notes in secret/cannot risk altering group’s behaviour - Theoretical issues:
=valid due to involvement and flexible/grounded (Interpretivists)
=unrepresentative as small sample, unreliable as not standardised and bias/lacks objectivity (Positivists)- would prefer NPO - Ethical issues:
=deception / cannot gain informed consent / protection from harm
10
Q
Qualitative Methods in Research- Documents
A
=public documents- governments / schools
=personal documents- first-person accounts of events
=historical documents
- Practical issues:
=quick and cheap for large data
=difficulty accessing
=may not answer sociologist’s questions - Theoretical issues:
=valid picture of meanings (Interpretivists)
=may lack validity due to authenticity/credibility/misinterpretation (Positivists)
=unreliable as not standardised- P
=unrepresentative - Ethical issues:
=informed consent varies- difficult for private documents but not for public - Content analysis:
method of analysing documents
=formal content analysis- quant from qual- Positivists like as objective and representative
=thematic analysis- qual from texts- Interpretivists as reveal meanings through themes
11
Q
Sociology and Science- Positivism
A
- Apply logic and methods of natural sciences to study of sociology to solve social problems and achieve progress
=society is objective factual reality
=studied through systematic observation and measurement
=discover general laws - Positivist methods:
Natural science experimental method as test hypothesis in systematic way
=quantitative- laws of cause and effect
=experiments and official stats- objectivity and detachment
12
Q
Sociology and Science- Interpretivism
A
- Do not believe sociology should adopt methods of natural sciences as unsuited to study of human beings
=internal meanings
=science only laws of cause and effect - Subject matter of sociology:
=natural sciences study matter with no consciousness, sociology study people with consciousness - Interpretivist methods:
Uncover meanings via verstehen (empathetic understanding) - Versions of interpretivism:
=interactionists- causal explanations via bottom-up
=phenomenologists/ethnomethodologists- reject causal explanations as society not real thing out there - Postmodernism and feminism:
=Postmodernists reject sociology as science because meta-narrative- big story claiming monopoly of truth
13
Q
Sociology and Science- Karl Popper
A
- Falsificationism=a statement is scientific if it can be proven false by the evidence
- A falsifiable theory must be open to criticism so that flaws can be exposed and better theories developed
- Implications for sociology:
=Marx’s theory of a revolution cannot be falsified
=sociology can be scientific by producing testable hypotheses
14
Q
Sociology and Science- Thomas Kuhn
A
- Paradigm=shared framework of beliefs held by members given scientific community
- Paradigm defines what science is and scientists are socialised into it- science cannot exist without shared paradigm
=normal science- paradigm does not go unquestioned and allows accumulation of knowledge
=if too many anomalies are found, confidence in the paradigm declines
=science enters period of crisis
=scientific revolution occurs - Implications for sociology:
=sociology not a science as multiple paradigms- only could become science if disagreements resolved
15
Q
Sociology and Science- Realism and Science
A
- Similarity between sociology and natural sciences due to degree of control over variables being researched
- Closed system=researcher controls and measures variables and make precise predictions
- Open system=researcher cannot control and measure variables and cannot make precise predictions
=sociologists study open systems
=Realists reject positivist view science concerned with observable phenomena
16
Q
Objectivity and Values- Classical Sociologists and Values
A
- Weber=values can neither be proved or disproved by the facts- they belong to different realms
=values as a guide to research- areas of study selected in terms of value relevance
=data collection and hypothesis testing- must be as objective as possible
=values in interpretation of data- facts influenced by sociologist’s values
=values and sociologist as a citizen- cannot dodge oral issues by hiding behind value freedom - Values are relevant when research topic, research method and use findings put to
17
Q
Objectivity and Values- Value Freedom and Commitment
A
- 20th century positivists:
=values irrelevant to research as science concerned with matters of fact
Gouldner=sociologists became spiritless technicians so as to dodge moral issues their work raised - Committed sociology:
=sociologists should identify values and openly take sides - Whose side are we on:
=functionalists/positivists- powerful
=Becker- underdog- should be committed to ending their oppression - Funding and careers:
=government funded research may control direction and what questions asked of the topic - Relativism and postmodernism:
=no group has special access to the truth- any that claims to are just a meta-narrative based on values and assumptions
18
Q
Functionalism- Durkheim
A
- Traditional society=mechanical solidarity with little division of labour and everyone is alike- strong collective conscience
- Modern society=complex division of labour promoting differences between groups and weakening social solidarity- freedom must be regulated to prevent egoism destroying social bonds
- Rapid change=undermining old norms throwing people into state of anomie that threatens social cohesion
- Social facts=society is a separate entity existing over and above its members with external social facts shaping their behaviour to serve society’s needs
19
Q
Functionalism- Society as a System- Organic Analogy
A
- Parsons
- System
organisms and societies are self-regulating systems of independent parts that fit together in fixed ways
Body=organs Society=institutions - System needs
Social system has basic needs that must be met if it is to survive - Functions
Contribution it makes to meeting system needs and ensuring survival
20
Q
Functionalism- Society as a System- Value Consensus and Social Order
A
- social order achieved through agreement on (value consensus) shared culture/central value system
- culture=set of norms, values, beliefs, goals shared by members of society
- social order only possible if value consensus=agreement on norms and values
21
Q
Functionalism- Society as a System- Integration of Individuals
A
- value consensus to make social order possible=integrating into social system=directing them towards meeting society’s needs
- Parsons- ensuring conformity to norms and meeting needs- socialisation
teaching individuals to want to do what system requires they do
internalise norms and values=society part of personality - Parsons- ensuring conformity to norms and meeting needs- social control
positive sanctions reward conformity
negative sanctions punish deviance
22
Q
Functionalism- Society as a System- Parts of Social System
A
- Parsons building block approach
actions governed by norms
cluster norms=status roles
cluster status role=institution
cluster institution=sub-systems
cluster sub-systems=social system
23
Q
Functionalism- Society as a System- System’s needs
A
- Parsons AGIL schema:
- A- adaptation
meets material needs through economic sub-system - G- goal attainment
setting goals and allocating resources falls to political sub-system - I- integration
different parts of system integrated together pursue shared goals=religious sub-system - L- latency
processes that maintain society=kinship sub-system- pattern maintenance and tension management - adaptation and goal attainment=instrumental needs
- integration and latency=expressive needs
24
Q
Functionalism- Society as a System- Social Change
A
- Parsons=traditional society
collective interests / ascribed status / particularistic standards - Parsons=modern society
individual interest / achieved status / universalistic standards - Society change=gradual, evolutionary process of increasing complexity and structural differentiation (gradual process in which separate, functionally specialised institutions develop, each meeting different need)
- Gradual change also occurring through dynamic equilibrium=as change in one part of system, compensatory changes in other parts- rise in industry=extended to nuclear
25
Q
Functionalism- Merton’s Internal Critique
A
- Indispensability:
Parsons assumes everything in society is functionally indispensable in existing form
=untested assumption- functional alternatives - Functional unity:
Parsons assumes parts of society tightly integrated into single whole and each part functional for rest / change=knock-on-effect on other parts
=neither assumption true- some parts have functional autonomy - Universal functionalism:
Parsons assumes everything in society performs positive function
=some things dysfunctional/conflicts of interest - Manifest (intended) and latent (unintended) functions=hidden connections between social phenomena
26
Q
Functionalism- External Critiques- Logical
A
- Teleological=things exist because of their effect/function
- Cause must come before effect but functionalism=effect before cause
- Unscientific=Popper-unfalsifiability=deviance cannot be both functional and dysfunctional
27
Q
Functionalism- External Critiques- Conflict Perspective (Marxists)
A
- Inability to explain conflict and change due to organic analogy
- Society is not a harmonious whole=based on exploitation and divided into classes with conflicting interests and unequal power
- Conservative ideology legitimating status quo=helps justify existing social order as inevitable and desirable
28
Q
Functionalism- External Critiques- Action Perspectives
A
- Wong=deterministic=individuals are mere puppets whose strings are being pulled by the social system
individuals actually create society by their interactions - Functionalism refies society=treats it as a distinct thing over and above individuals, with its own needs
society is not a thing out there with its own independent existence
29
Q
Functionalism- External Critiques- Postmodernism
A
- Assumes society is stable and orderly but cannot account for diversity and instability in today’s postmodern society
- Functionalism=meta-narrative but overall theory not possible as society so fragmented
30
Q
Marxism- Marx’s Ideas
A
- Historical materialism=humans are beings with material needs and must work to meet them using forces of production- as this develops, a division forms between two classes
- Class society and exploitation:
=primitive communism- no classes
=feudal society- exploitation of serfs tied to the land
=capitalist society- exploitation of free wage labourers
=socialist society
=communist society - Capitalism=division between bourgeoisie and proletariat
- Class consciousness=proletariat aware of need to overthrow capitalism
- Ideology=powerful set of beliefs of economically dominant class
- Alienation=loss of control over the products of our labour and separatism from our true creative nature
- The state protects the interests of the owners who control it- revolution would abolish the state and create a classless society
31
Q
Marxism- Marx’s Ideas- Criticisms
A
- Class:
=status and power differences are also important sources of inequality
=two-class model is too simplistic - Economic determinism:
=fails to recognise humans have free will and can bring about change through conscious actions
=predictions of a revolution have not come true
32
Q
Marxism- Gramsci and Hegemony
A
- Hegemony=ideological and moral leadership- explains how ruling class maintain position
=coercion- CJS forces classes to accept its rule
=consent- uses ideas to persuade lower classes that their rule is legitimate - Ruling class hegemony never complete because:
=ruling class are minority and have to make ideological compromises
=proletariat have dual consciousness- seeing through dominant ideology
=only lead to revolution if proletariat construct counter-hegemonic bloc to win leadership of society- producing own organic intellectuals
33
Q
Marxism- Althusser’s Structuralist Marxism
A
- Criticisms of the base-superstructure model:
=economic level- activities that involve producing something to satisfy a need
=political level- all forms of organisation
=ideological level- ways that people see themselves in their world - Ideological state apparatus=manipulate W/C into accepting capitalism as legitimate
- Repressive state apparatus=coerce W/C into complying with will of bourgeoisie
- Criticisms of humanism:
=humans are merely puppets and unseen structures are hidden puppet masters determining thoughts and actions
=socialism will come about because of over-determination- contradictions in the structures that occur relatively independently of each other
34
Q
Feminism- Liberal
A
=believe women can achieve gender equality through reform and promoting equal rights
- Cultural change:
Traditional prejudices and stereotypes about gender differences are barriers to equality - Sex and gender:
=sex- biological differences between males and females
=gender- culturally constructed differences between masculine and feminine roles/identities assigned to males and females - Socialisation:
Sexual attitudes and stereotypical beliefs about gender are culturally constructed and transmitted
=change socialisation patterns
=actions will produce social change and equality will become the norm
=men and women are equally capable of performing the same roles
35
Q
Feminism- Radical
A
=patriarchy (male domination) is universal- Firestone argues lies in bio. capacity to bear and care for infants
=patriarchy is fundamental
=all men oppress all women
=patriarchal oppression is direct and personal
- Sexual politics:
=all relationships involve power and are political when one tries to dominate another
=patriarchy socially constructs sexuality so as to satisfy men’s desires - Women’s liberation:
=separatism- living apart from men and creating new culture of female independence
=consciousness-raising- lead to collective action
=political lesbianism- having relations with women to avoid sleeping with the enemy
36
Q
Feminism- Marxism
A
=women’s subordination is rooted in capitalism- results from primary role of homemaker placing them in dependent economic position
- Functions for capitalism:
=reserve army of labour- cheap, exploitable labour
=absorbing male workers’ anger
=reproduction of labour - Ideological factors:
=ideology of familism- presents nuclear family and sexual division of labour as normal
=overthrow of capitalism necessary to secure women’s liberation
=femininity and the unconscious- very difficult to dislodge=hard to overcome deeply rooted patriarchal ideology
37
Q
Feminism- Dual Systems
A
=see capitalism and patriarchy as two intertwined systems- they reinforce each other
- Capitalism demands cheap, exploitable female labour for workforce
- Patriarchy wants to keep women subordinated within domestic sphere
38
Q
Feminism- Difference
A
=differences of class, ethnicity, sexuality lead to different experiences of patriarchy
- Previous feminist theories claimed a false universality- claims to apply to all women but in reality only white, heterosexual M/C women
- Essentialism=other feminisms see all women as the same- fail to reflect diversity of women’s experiences
39
Q
Feminism- Poststructuralist
A
=concerned with discourses- ways of speaking, thinking or seeing something
Gives power over those it defines
The enlightenment project is a form of knowledge that legitimates domination of white M/C males
- Anti-essentialism:
=no fixed essence of what it is to be a woman as different discourses in times and cultures
=enables feminists to de-construct different discourses to reveal how they subordinate women
40
Q
Action Theories- Max Weber: Social Action Theory- Overview
A
- Structural and action approaches to understand human behaviour
- The level of cause
Objective structural factors that shape behaviour
e.g Protestant reformation, Calvinism=changes in behaviour - The level of meaning
Subjective meanings individuals attach to actions
e.g work=religious meaning for Calvinists as calling by God=accumulated wealth=first modern capitalists
41
Q
Action Theories- Max Weber: Social Action Theory- Types Of Action
A
- Instrumentally rational action
Actor calculates most efficient means achieving goal - Value-rational action
Toward goal actor regards as desirable for own sake - Traditional action
Customary, routine or habitual action - Affectual action
Expresses emotion
42
Q
Action Theories- Max Weber: Social Action Theory- Evaluation
A
- Schutz- too individualistic, cannot explain shared nature of meanings
- Typology of action difficult to apply- may be seen as multiple actions
- Verstehen criticised as we can never actually be that other person
43
Q
Action Theories- Symbolic Interactionism- Mead
A
- Symbolic interactionism
How we create social world through interactions
Based on meanings given to situations, conveyed through symbols - Symbols vs instincts
Respond to world by giving meanings to significant things- creating world of meanings by attaching symbols to things
Interpretive phase between stimulus and our response to it (interpretation of meaning) - Taking the role of the other
Interpret others meanings by taking their role
Ability develops through interaction
44
Q
Action Theories- Symbolic Interactionism- Blumer
A
- Three key principles of interactionism:
Actions based on meanings we give to situations
Meanings arise from interactions- somewhat negotiable/changeable
Meanings we give are result of taking role of the other - Blumer- although action partly predictable as we internalise expectations, always room for choice in performance of roles
45
Q
Action Theories- Symbolic Interactionism- Labelling Theory
A
- Definition of the situation
Defining something labels it
Thomas- if define situation as real, it has real consequences - Looking-glass self
Cooley- self-concept arises out of ability to take role of other
See ourself mirrored in how respond to us / become what they see us as - Career
Becker+Lemert- pre-patient / labelling by psychiatrist / hospital in-patient / discharge / mental patient=master status - Accused of determinism
46
Q
Action Theories- Symbolic Interactionism- Goffman’s Dramaturgical Model- Impression Management
A
- Goffman=how we actively construct our self by manipulating other peoples impression of us
- Dramaturgical=uses analogies with drama as framework for analysing social interaction
Actors / scripts / props - Presentation of self=present particular image of ourselves to audience- constantly studying them and adjusting performance to convince
- Impression management=tone of voice / gestures / settings / props
- Front-stage=act out our roles
- Backstage=step out of role and be ourselves
47
Q
Action Theories- Symbolic Interactionism- Goffman’s Dramaturgical Model- Roles
A
- Functionalists=roles are tightly scripted by society and fully internalise scripts through socialisation
- Goffman=role distance between real self and roles- we are not really the roles we play
Roles loosely scripted by society and have freedom in how we play them - Do not always believe in roles we play- may be calculating and manipulating audience into accepting impression that conceals true self/real motives
48
Q
Action Theories- Symbolic Interactionism- Evaluation
A
- Avoids determinism, recognising people create society through choices/meanings
- Loose collection of descriptive concepts than explanation
- Ignores wider social structures and cannot explain consistent patterns of behaviour
- Everyone plays both actor and audience with interactions often improvised and unrehearsed
49
Q
Action Theories- Phenomenology- Husserl’s Philosophy
A
- Phenomenon=describes things as appear to our senses- all we can know of world is what senses tell us about it
- Husserl=world only makes sense as impose meaning and order by constructing metal categories used to class and file info from senses
- The world as we know it and can only be a product of our mind
50
Q
Action Theories- Phenomenology- Schutz’s Phenomenological Sociology- Typifications
A
- Typifications=shared categories- enable us to organise experiences into shared world of meaning
- Meaning of action varies according to its social context- meaning given by context so potentially unclear / unstable
- Typifications make social order possible=give members of society shared life world of common sense knowledge that use to make sense experience
- Recipe knowledge=we can follow life world without thinking too much, using it to make sense of everyday world
- Social world=shared inter-subjective world only exists when share same meanings
51
Q
Action Theories- Phenomenology- Schutz’s Phenomenological Sociology- Natural Attitude
A
- Society appears to us a real objective thing existing outside of us
- Natural attitude=leading us to assume social world is a solid, natural thing out there- all involved in process share same meaning and allows cooperation to achieve goals
- Berger+Luckmann=although reality socially constructed, once constructed, takes on life of its own and becomes external reality reacts back on us
52
Q
Action Theories- Ethnomethodology- Indexicality and Reflexivity
A
- Garfinkel=social order is created from the bottom-up / social order is an accomplishment- constructed in life using common-sense knowledge
- Indexicality=meanings are always potentially unclear- everything depends on the context
=threat to social order as communication and cooperation may break down - Reflexivity=the fact that we use commonsense knowledge in everyday interactions to construct a sense of meaning and stop indexicality
=language vital to achieve this
53
Q
Action Theories- Ethnomethodology- Experiments in Disrupting Social Order
A
- Garfinkel=demonstrate nature of social order by breaching experiments
=disrupt people’s sense of order and challenge reflexivity by undermining assumptions about situations
=orderliness everyday situations are accomplishment of those who take part in them
54
Q
Action Theories- Ethnomethodology- Suicide and Reflexivity
A
- Coroners make sense of deaths by picking features from facts about the deceased- treating them as real pattern
=coroner interprets future cases with same pattern
=pattern becomes self-reinforcing
55
Q
Action Theories- Ethnomethodology- Evaluation
A
+draws attention to how actively construct order and meaning, rather than seeing us as puppets
~trivial findings
~ignores how wider structures of power and inequality affect meanings that individuals construct
56
Q
Action Theories- Structure and Action- Giddens’ Structuration Theory
A
- Duality of structure=structure and action cannot exist without the other
- Structuration=through actions we produce structures over time and space, while structures are what make actions possible in first place
=language=our action (communication) depends on the existence of the structure (language rules)
=language=our actions (speaking and writing) change the structure (new meanings/rules)
57
Q
Globalisation, Modernity and Postmodernity- Modernity and Globalisation
A
- The Enlightenment project=through reason and science, we can discover true knowledge and progress to a better society
- Characteristics modern society:
=nation state / capitalism / mass production / scientific thinking / technology / individualism / decline tradition - Globalisation:
=economic changes- growth in TNC’s drives globalisation
=technological changes- time-space compression of internet and air travel
=political changes- fall of communism lead to global capitalism
=changes in culture and identity
58
Q
Globalisation, Modernity and Postmodernity- Postmodernity
A
- Knowledge:
=no objective criteria to prove whether a theory is true- anyone claiming to have it is only a meta-narrative - The Enlightenment project:
=media creates a hyper-reality- its signs appear more real than reality itself - Culture and identity:
=media produces endless stream of images making culture unstable and fragmented- people cease to believe one version of the truth
=identity can be changed by changing our consumption patterns - Criticisms:
=ignores use of media by M/C as ideological domination
=wrong to claim cannot distinguish between reality and media
59
Q
Globalisation, Modernity and Postmodernity- Theories of Late Modernity
A
=today’s rapid changes are a continuation of modern society
- Giddens- reflexivity and high modernity:
=disembedding- lifting out of social relations from local contexts of interaction
=reflexivity- tradition and custom no longer serve as guide to how we should act- reflect on and modify actions in light of info on risks - Late modernity and risk:
=facing new high consequence risks- manufactured risks as result from technology not nature
=rational plans based on objective knowledge to reduce risks and achieve progress
60
Q
Globalisation, Modernity and Postmodernity- Marxist Theories of Postmodernity
A
=believe in Enlightenment project of achieving objective knowledge to improve society- moved to postmodernity but it is most recent stage of capitalism
- Flexible accumulation:
=new way of achieving profitability using ICT, job insecurity and working flexibly to fit employers needs
=customised products promote cultural diversity
=leisure, culture and identity become commodities
=brings about political changes
61
Q
Sociology and Social Policy- Social Problems
A
- Worsley- some piece of social behaviour that causes public friction/private misery and calls for collective action to solve it
- e.g poverty / crime / divorce
62
Q
Sociology and Social Policy- Sociological Problems
A
- Worsley- any pattern of relationship that calls for explanation
- e.g why some people are poor or commit crime / why people are prosperous or law-abiding
63
Q
Sociology and Social Policy- The Influence of Sociology on Policy- Electoral Popularity
A
- research findings and recommendations might point to a policy that would be unpopular with voters
64
Q
Sociology and Social Policy- The Influence of Sociology on Policy- Ideological and Policy Preferences of Governments
A
- if the researcher’s value-stance/perspective is similar to the political ideology of the government, they may stand more chance of influencing its policies
65
Q
Sociology and Social Policy- The Influence of Sociology on Policy- Cost
A
- the government may not have sufficient funds to implement an appropriate policy based on the sociologists research findings
66
Q
Sociology and Social Policy- The Influence of Sociology on Policy- The Power to Define the Problem
A
- those with power are the ones who are able to define what is/is not a problem, and if anything should be done about it
67
Q
Sociology and Social Policy- Perspectives- Positivism and Functionalism
A
- sociologists role=provide state with objective, scientific information
- by investigating social problems and discovering their causes=provide necessary info on which state can base its policies
- ‘piecemeal social engineering’ policies- cautious approach that tackles one issue at a time
- Marxists- social problems=aspects of class inequality so need to change structure of society to solve the problems
68
Q
Sociology and Social Policy- Perspectives- Social Democratic Perspective
A
- Townsend- sociologists should research social problems and make policy recommendations to eradicate them
- Marxists- capitalism is responsible for inequalities so problems cannot be solved without abolishing capitalism
Postmodernists- impossible to discover objective truth
69
Q
Sociology and Social Policy- Perspectives- Marxism
A
- the state represents the ruling class and its social policies serve the interests of capitalism
- policies provide ideological legitimation to mask capitalist exploitation
- policies maintain the labour force for further exploitation
- policies are a means of preventing revolution
- sociologists main role=criticise capitalist social policy
- social democrats- research can help bring about progressive policies within capitalist system
70
Q
Sociology and Social Policy- Perspectives- Feminism
A
- the state perpetuates women’s subordination through its social policies
- many policies reflect the liberal feminist view that anti-discrimination reforms will bring about gender equality
- Marxist and radical feminists- more far-reaching changes that the existing state cannot deliver
71
Q
Sociology and Social Policy- Perspectives- New Right
A
- the state should have minimal involvement in society- opposed to using state provision of welfare to deal with social problems
- Murray- generous welfare benefits act as ‘perverse incentives’
- highly critical of existing policies but see role of sociologists as proposing alternative policies
- New Right thinking attractive to Conservative Party
- New Right policy proposals use findings of politically sympathetic think tanks
