Education

Question 1

Class Differences In Achievement- External- Cultural Deprivation- Language

Answer 1

• cultural deprivation=when children lack cultural equipment needed to do well at school so they underachieve
• ways in which parents communicate with children affects cognitive development and ability to benefit from schooling
• Hubbs-Tait- when parents use challenging language to make children evaluate their understanding, cognitive performance improves
• less educated parents use simple descriptive statements that result in lowered performance

Question 2

Class Differences In Achievement- External- Cultural Deprivation- Language- Speech Codes

Answer 2

• Bernstein
• Restricted code
  W/C
  Limited vocab and simple sentences
  Context-bound
• Elaborate code
  M/C
  Wider vocab and complex sentences
  Context-free
• elaborate code used by teachers so gives M/C pupils advantages
• Bernstein- W/C pupils fail not because culturally deprived but because schools fail to teach elaborate code

Question 3

Class Differences In Achievement- External- Cultural Deprivation- Parents education

Answer 3

• Douglas- W/C parents place less value on education=less ambitious for children=lower achievement
• Feinstein- M/C parents better educated=advantage in socialisation
• educated parents parenting style=discipline and high expectations
• educated parents more aware what is needed to assist educational progress
• educated parents spend income to promote children’s educational success

Question 4

Class Differences In Achievement- External- Cultural Deprivation- Working-Class Subculture

Answer 4

• large sections of W/C have differing goals and attitudes from rest of society so children fail at school
• Sugarman- W/C subculture features that barrier to achievement:
  fatalism / collectivism / immediate gratification / present-time orientation
• compensatory education- tackle cultural deprivation by extra resources to schools in deprived areas
  Operation head start in US- Sesame Street to transmit values
  Education action zones / Sure start
• myth of cultural deprivation
  Keddie- victim-blaming- disadvantaged by education system
  Troyna+Williams- not child’s language but schools attitude towards it

Question 5

Class Differences In Achievement- External- Material Deprivation- Housing

Answer 5

• Material deprivation=poverty and lack of material necessities to achieve in education
• Overcrowding=direct effect as don’t have space to study
  Development impaired through lack of space- moving schools as temporary accommodation
• Overcrowding=indirect effects as greater risk of accidents and ill health- more absences

Question 6

Class Differences In Achievement- External- Material Deprivation- Diet and Health

Answer 6

• Howard=poorer homes lead to lower energy and immune systems=more absences from school and difficulty concentrating in class

Question 7

Class Differences In Achievement- External- Material Deprivation- Financial Support and Costs of Education

Answer 7

• Have to do without equipment and miss out on experiences that would enhance educational achievement
  Tanner=transport / uniform / books
• Cheaper equipment/hand-me-downs=stigmatisation and bullying
  Flaherty=20% eligible for FSM don’t take up on it
• Smith+Noble=cannot afford tutoring / private schooling

Question 8

Class Differences In Achievement- External- Material Deprivation- Fear of Debt

Answer 8

• Callender+Jackson= W/C students more debt averse- more costs then benefits going to uni and over 5x less likely apply than M/C students
• Increased tuition fees will deter even more
• W/C students receive less financial support from families when at uni
• Reay=W/C more likely local unis so can live at home and save costs
• Dropout rates highest for unis with large proportion poor students

Question 9

Class Differences In Achievement- External- Cultural Capital

Answer 9

• Bourdieu=combines cultural and material explanations- M/C more successful as possess more capital
• Cultural capital=knowledge, attitudes, values, skills etc of M/C
• More likely understand what education system requires for success and develop intellectual ideas=advantage in school as transmits M/C culture
• W/C children lack cultural capital=exam failure

Question 10

Class Differences In Achievement- External- Cultural Capital- Educational and Economic Capital

Answer 10

• Economic capital=wealth that M/C families own
• Educational capital=greater economic and cultural capital can obtain educational capital=qualifications
  Allows M/C jobs and more economic capital=reproducing advantages from generation to generation

Question 11

Class Differences In Achievement- External- Cultural Capital- Test of Bourdieu’s Ideas

Answer 11

• Sullivan=questionnaires to assess students cultural capital- reading / TV viewing habits / art galleries and museums / vocab and knowledge of cultural figures
• Complex fiction and serious TV documentaries=greater cultural capital
  Children of graduates
• Cultural capital only accounts for part of class difference
  Greater resources and aspirations of M/C=remainder class gap in achievement

Question 12

Class Differences In Achievement- Internal- Labelling

Answer 12

• Label=meanings/definitions attach to someone/something to make sense of them
• Becker= judged according to ideal pupil=M/C as W/C were badly behaved
• Hempel-Jorgensen=W/C primary school- ideal pupil is quiet, passive and obedient
  =M/C primary school- ideal pupil personality and academic ability
• Dunne+Gazeley=normalised underachievement of W/C but felt could overcome underachievement of M/C
• Rist=fast learners were tigers- M/C- received greater encouragement
  =slow learners were cardinals and clowns- W/C- seated far away and fewer chance to show ability

Question 13

Class Differences In Achievement- Internal- Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

Answer 13

• Self-fulfilling prophecy=prediction that comes true simply because it has been made
• Create SFP through labels attach to pupils as internalises label and becomes it
• Rosenthal+Jacobson=picked 20% pupils at random and labelled as spurters
  Almost half of pupils a year later=significant progress
  Conveyed label to pupils through interactions
• What people believe to be true will have real effects

Question 14

Class Differences In Achievement- Internal- Streaming

Answer 14

• Streaming=separating children into same class for all subjects
  SFP more likely occur here
  W/C=lower streams=SFP of underachievement
• Lacey=streaming as differentiation=separating sheep from goats and educating differently
• Gillborn+Youdell=A-to-C economy=schools focus time, effort and resources pupils have potential to get grade C’s so can boost league table position
• Gillborn+Youdell=educational triage=separating students into pass, potential and fail- those on C/D borderline allocated most resources

Question 15

Class Differences In Achievement- Internal- Pupil Subcultures

Answer 15

• Pupil subculture=group pupil who share similar values and behaviour patterns
• Lacey
  Differentiation=categorising pupils according to how perceive ability, attitude, behaviour
  Polarisation=pupils respond to streaming by moving towards one of two extremes (pro-school/anti-school)

Question 16

Class Differences In Achievement- Internal- Pupil Subcultures- Pro-school and Anti-school Subcultures

Answer 16

• Pro-school
  High streams- M/C- remain committed to values of school
  Gain status through academic success
  Values=those of the school
• Anti-school
  Low streams- W/C- loss is self-esteem as school undermined them
  Gain status through inverting schools values
• Woods- response to labelling/streaming
  Ingratiation=teachers pet
  Ritualism=going through motions and staying out of trouble
  Retreatism=daydreaming and mucking about
  Rebellion=outright rejection of everything school stands for

Question 17

Class Differences In Achievement- Internal- Pupil Subcultures- Criticisms

Answer 17

• Useful in showing schools are not fair institutions
• Deterministic=if you are labelled you have no choice but to fulfil prophecy
• Marxists=ignore wider structures of power within which labelling takes place

Question 18

Class Differences In Achievement- Internal- Pupils’ Class Identities and The School- Habitus

Answer 18

• Archer=interaction between W/C pupils’ identities and school=underachievement
• Habitus=learned, taken-for-granted ways of thinking, being and acting that are shared by a particular social class
• M/C=power to define its habitus as superior and impose it on education system so school holds M/C values

Question 19

Class Differences In Achievement- Internal- Pupils’ Class Identities and The School- Symbolic Capital and Symbolic Violence

Answer 19

• Symbolic capital=status and recognition
  Schools=M/C habitus so M/C tastes and preferences=more symbolic capital
• Symbolic violence=denying of symbolic capital
  W/C tastes and lifestyles as inferior=reproduces class structure and keeps in their place

Question 20

Class Differences In Achievement- Internal- Pupils’ Class Identities and The School- Nike Identities

Answer 20

• Symbolic violence=alternative class identities and gain symbolic capital through consuming branded goods
  =conflict with schools M/C habitus
• Nike identities=W/C pupils’ rejection of higher education as unrealistic and undesirable
  Wouldn’t fit in as for richer, posher, cleverer people
  Wouldn’t suit their preferred lifestyles/habitus

Question 21

Class Differences In Achievement- Internal- Pupils’ Class Identities and The School- W/C Identity and Educational Success / Class Identity and Self Exclusion

Answer 21

• Ingram=fitting in was problem for W/C grammar boys- tension between neighbourhoods habitus and M/C school habitus
  Worthless at school for wearing street clothes but worthless in community for not wearing any
• Evans=successful W/C girls face hidden barriers- identity would not fit with habitus of elite unis
  Strong attachment to families and would stay home to study

Question 22

Class Differences In Achievement- Internal- Pupils’ Class Identities and The School- Relationship Between Internal and External Factors

Answer 22

• W/C habitus and identities outside school conflict with schools M/C habitus
• W/C restricted code=labelling and SFP
• Poverty=bullying and stigmatisation=truanting and failure

Question 23

Ethnic Differences In Achievement- Evidence

Answer 23

• Black and Pakistani pupils=worst
• Chinese and Indians=best
• White pupils close to national average but because form vast majority of school population

Question 24

Ethnic Differences In Achievement- External- Cultural Deprivation- Intellectual and Linguistic Skills

Answer 24

• Cultural deprivation=underachievement of ethnic groups due to inadequate socialisation in the home
• Low income black families lack intellectual stimulation=fail to develop reasoning and problem-solving skills
• Bereiter+Englemann=language of poorer black American families=ungrammatical and disjointed=cannot express abstract ideas which is a major barrier to educational progress
• Children who do not speak English at home=held back educationally
  Mirza=Indian do well even though English not home language

Question 25

Ethnic Differences In Achievement- External- Cultural Deprivation- Attitudes, Values and Family Structure

Answer 25

• Lack of motivation as not socialised into mainstream culture=ambition and competitiveness
• Black Caribbean=fatalistic and immediate gratification
• Moynihan=matrifocal black family=lack of male role model for achievement
• Sewell=lack fatherly nurturing=boys underachieving
  Street gangs=alternative perverse loyalty/love
  Greatest barrier to success=peer pressure
• Sewell=Chinese and Indian=supportive families with Asian work ethic as high value on education

Question 26

Ethnic Differences In Achievement- External- Cultural Deprivation- White W/C Pupils

Answer 26

• White W/C pupils underachieve=lower aspirations due to culture of lack parental support
• Lupton=poorer behaviour in white W/C schools=lower parental support and negative attitudes of parents toward education
• Evans=street culture in white W/C areas=brutal and brought into school=strong pressure to reject education

Question 27

Ethnic Differences In Achievement- External- Cultural Deprivation- Compensatory Education

Answer 27

• Compensatory education=educational policy to counter effects of cultural deprivation
• Operation Head Start=compensate children for cultural deficit said to suffer because of deprived backgrounds
• Sure Start=support development of pre-school children in deprived areas

Question 28

Ethnic Differences In Achievement- External- Cultural Deprivation- Criticisms

Answer 28

• Driver=ignores positive effects of ethnicity on achievement- matrifocal family=positive female role model
• Keddie=victim blaming- culturally different not deprived- underachieve due to ethnocentric schools
• Ball=EM disadvantage as don’t know how negotiate education system=cultural exclusion
• Compensatory education imposes white M/C culture on EM groups

Question 29

Ethnic Differences In Achievement- External- Material Deprivation

Answer 29

• Material deprivation=lack of physical/economic resources to achieve in education
• Palmer=1/2 EM children=low income households / EM 2x likely be unemployed
• More at risk of material derivation due to living in economically depressed areas with high unemployment and low wage rates

Question 30

Ethnic Differences In Achievement- External- Racism in Wider Society

Answer 30

• Material deprivation=product of racism in wider society
• Members of EM groups=direct and indirect discrimination at work and in housing market=low pay and unemployment which affects children
• Racial discrimination leads to social exclusion which worsens poverty faced by EM

Question 31

Ethnic Differences In Achievement- Internal- Labelling and Teacher Racism

Answer 31

• Interactionists=different labels teachers attach to EM children
  Black=disruptive
  Asian=passive
• Gillborn+Mirza=black were highest achievers but when GCSE’s had fallen below average=schooling not background to blame
• Gillborn+Youdell=racialised expectations of black pupils and behaviour was threatening
  =high levels of exclusion of black boys
  =black pupils in lower sets or streams
• Wright=teachers assumed Asians poor English so left out of class discussions / mispronounced names
  Connolly=Asian boys more feminine, vulnerable and less able to protect themselves

Question 32

Ethnic Differences In Achievement- Internal- Pupil Identities

Answer 32

• Archer:
  Ideal pupil identity=white / M/C / masculine / achieved status
  Pathologised pupil identity=Asian / feminine / over-achiever
  Demonised pupil identity=black or white / W/C / under-achiever de
• Chinese=praised and viewed negatively by teachers- achieved status in wrong way- never ideal pupil=negative positive stereotype

Question 33

Ethnic Differences In Achievement- Internal- Pupil Responses and Subcultures

Answer 33

• Fuller=high achieving black girls in year 11=rejected negative stereotypes and channeled anger of labelling into pursuit of educational success
• Mirza=teacher racism
  Colour blind=all equal but racism unchallenged
  Liberal chauvinists=black culturally deprived so low expectations
  Overt racists=blacks inferior and discriminate against
  Black girls avoided teachers to avoid their racism
• Sewell
  Conformists=largest / successful and accepted schools values
  Innovators=second largest / pro-education but anti-school
  Retreatists=minority / disconnected from school and black subcultures outside
  Rebels=small but visible / rejected school and conformed to black macho lad

Question 34

Ethnic Differences In Achievement- Internal- Labelling, Identities and Responses- Pupil Responses and Subcultures- Evaluation

Answer 34

• Shows how teacher stereotypes cause of failure
• Stereotypes perceived as product of teachers’ prejudices and not racism of education system as a whole
• Deterministic=once labelled will succumb to a SFP and fail educationally

Question 35

Ethnic Differences In Achievement- Internal- Institutional Racism- Critical Race Theory

Answer 35

• Institutional racism=discrimination built into way institutions operate
• Critical race theory=racism is an ingrained feature of society
• Roithmayr=institutional racism is a locked-in inequality=discrimination so large that no longer conscious intent to discriminate- feeds on itself
• Gillborn=ethnic inequality so deep rooted that practically inevitable feature of education system

Question 36

Ethnic Differences In Achievement- Internal- Institutional Racism- Marketisation and Segregation

Answer 36

• Gillborn=marketisation means more scope to select pupils=negative stereotypes influence decisions about admissions
• Moore+Davenport=selection procedures=ethnic segregation with EM pupils failing to get into good secondary schools due to discrimination
• Commission for Racial Equality=racist bias in school interviews / report stereotype minority pupils / lack of info in minority languages

Question 37

Ethnic Differences In Achievement- Internal- Institutional Racism- Ethnocentric Curriculum

Answer 37

• Ethnocentric curriculum=reflects culture of one ethnic group- usually dominant culture
• Troyna+Williams=priority to white culture and English language
• David=specifically British curriculum that teaches culture of host community
• Ball=history is mythical age of empire and past glories while ignoring history of black and Asian people
• EM groups=culture and identity not valued in education so worsens self esteem=negative educational achievement

Question 38

Ethnic Differences In Achievement- Internal- Institutional Racism- Assessment

Answer 38

• Gillborn=assessment game is rigged to validate dominant cultures superiority
• Baseline assessments replaced by new way to measure ability=overnight black pupils doing worse than white
  =based on teachers judgements
  =completed at end of reception year
• Increased risk for teacher stereotyping affecting results

Question 39

Ethnic Differences In Achievement- Internal- Institutional Racism- Access To Opportunities

Answer 39

• Gifted and talented programme=meeting needs of more able pupils in inner-city schools
  White=2x likely G+T than black
• Exam tiers=Tickly=aiming high initiative to raise black achievement
  Black more likely entered lower tiers than whites as placed in lower sets

Question 40

Ethnic Differences In Achievement- Internal- Institutional Racism- New IQism

Answer 40

• Secondary’s using IQ tests to allocate pupils to streams on false assumption that potential can be quantified/operationalised
• Black pupils more likely placed in lower streams as a result

Question 41

Ethnic Differences In Achievement- Internal- Institutional Racism- Criticisms of Gillborn

Answer 41

• Sewell=institutional racism not powerful enough to prevent individuals from succeeding- should focus on external
• Cannot be institutionally racist if there is overachievement of other model minorities such as Indian and Chinese
  Gillborn says this acts as an ideological function

Question 42

Gender Differences in Achievement- Gender Gap

Answer 42

• Key stage 1-3
  Girls better than boys- especially in English but gap is narrower in science and maths
• GCSE
  Girls 10 percentage points ahead
• AS and A-Level
  Girls more likely to pass and get higher grades- gap narrower than GCSE
• Girls better in traditional boys subjects like science
• More girls than boys go to higher education

Question 43

Gender Differences in Achievement- External- Impact of Feminism

Answer 43

• 1960’s=challenged patriarchy and rejected traditional stereotypes of women
• Impacted women’s rights and opportunities through campaigns to win changes in law
• Feminist ideas affected girls self image and aspirations=more motivated to do well in education

Question 44

Gender Differences in Achievement- External- Changes in the Family

Answer 44

• Increase divorce rate
• Increase in lone parent families
• Increase in cohabitation and decrease in first marriages
• Smaller families and more women staying single
• Women have more need and more opportunity to be economically independent=more educational motivation

Question 45

Gender Differences in Achievement- External- Changes in Women’s Employment

Answer 45

• 1970 Equal Pay Act
• 1975 Sex Discrimination Act
• Since 1975, pay gap has halved
• Girls have more incentive to see future in terms of paid work so aspire to get qualifications

Question 46

Gender Differences in Achievement- External- Girls’ Changing Ambitions

Answer 46

• Sharpe=W/C girls in 1970’s and 1990’s=priories were love and marriage and husbands=now careers most significant with independence
• Francis=girls had high career aspirations and need educational qualifications
• Beck+Beck-Gernsheim=independence valued more and career part of life project

Question 47

Gender Differences in Achievement- Internal- Equal Opportunities Policies

Answer 47

• Feminist ideas widespread in education system- girls and boys being equally capable with equally opportunities=social norm
• GIST+WISE=encourage girls into science and technology
• 1988 National curriculum=girls and boys study same subjects
• Education now more meritocratic (equal opportunity)

Question 48

Gender Differences in Achievement- Internal- Positive Role Models

Answer 48

• More female teachers/headteachers=pro-educational role models
• Feminisation of education=encourages perception of school as female gender domain=success is a desirable feminine characteristic

Question 49

Gender Differences in Achievement- Internal- GCSE and Coursework

Answer 49

• Mitsos+Browne=girls do better than boys in coursework as more conscientious and better organised
  Mature earlier and concentrate for longer
• Introduction into curriculum=boosted girls’ results more than boys’
• Gorard=gender gap increased when GCSE introduced as coursework major part of most subjects

Question 50

Gender Differences in Achievement- Internal- Teacher Attention

Answer 50

• French+French=teachers pay boys and girls similar attention but boys more overall as attracted more punishments
• Francis=although boys more attention, disciplined more harshly and felt teachers had lower expectations of them
• Swann=boys dominate class discussions but girls prefer group work and listening/cooperating=respond more positively to girls and encourage them

Question 51

Gender Differences in Achievement- Internal- Challenging Stereotypes in Curriculum

Answer 51

• In learning materials, females under-represented and portrayed as subordinate to males
• Since 1980’s=sexist images removed and replaced with positive female images=impact girls perception of what can do and raises aspirations

Question 52

Gender Differences in Achievement- Internal- Selection and League Tables

Answer 52

• Marketisation policies=competition between schools- incentive to recruiter more able students to boost results and league table position
• Girls=more successful so more attractive to schools=better education
• Boys=less successful and more badly-behaved- liability who will produce poorer results
• Liberal feminists welcome progress of equal opportunities policies
  Radical feminists more critical

Question 53

Gender Differences in Achievement- Internal- Identity, Class and Girls’ Achievement

Answer 53

• Archer=W/C girls underachieve due to conflict between feminine identities and school habitus
  Gain symbolic capital=conforming to W/C feminine identity
  Gain educational capital=conforming to school’s M/C notions of ideal pupil
• Hyper-heterosexual feminine identity=glamorous identity earns symbolic capital but causes conflict with school
  School=symbolic violence and defines culture as worthless
• Boyfriends=symbolic capital but disrupt schoolwork and lower aspirations
• Being loud, outspoken and assertive=aggressive to teachers
• Ladettes=sporty tomboy that truants=exclusion

Question 54

Gender Differences in Achievement- Internal- Successful W/C Girls

Answer 54

• Evans=successful W/C girls still disadvantaged by gender and class identities- want to go to uni to increase earning power and help families
• Live at home reflecting W/C feminine habitus=limited choice

Question 55

Gender Differences in Achievement- Boys and Achievement- Literacy

Answer 55

• Parents=less time reading to sons but mainly mother who does this=feminine activity
• Leisure interests don’t encourage language and communication skills but girls’ bedroom culture does

Question 56

Gender Differences in Achievement- Boys and Achievement- Globalisation and Decline of Traditional Men’s Jobs

Answer 56

• Globalisation=manufacturing industry relocating
• Decline in male employment=identity crisis with loss of motivation and self-esteem=little job prospects so cease getting qualifications

Question 57

Gender Differences in Achievement- Boys and Achievement- Feminisation of Education

Answer 57

• Sewell=boys fall behind as education feminised- no longer nurturing masculine traits
• Assessments feminised due to introduction of coursework=disadvantages boys
• Lack male primary school teachers=education is feminine activity
• Read=not only male teachers who can exert discipline boys need- disciplinarian discourse also used by women

Question 58

Gender Differences in Achievement- Boys and Achievement- Lack Male Role Model at Home

Answer 58

• Increase matrifocal families=lack positive male role model who goes out to work and supports family
• Less likely see value of employment and qualifications

Question 59

Gender Differences in Achievement- Boys and Achievement- Laddish Subcultures

Answer 59

• Francis=boys more concerned about being labelled as swots because it threatens masculine identity
  W/C culture=non-manual work is inferior
• Epstein=pro-school W/C boys likely harassed, labelled a gay and subjected to verbal abuse
• More women in paid work(traditionally masculine)=boys more laddish in effort to avoid identification as female=under-achievement

Question 60

Gender Differences in Achievement- Boys and Achievement- Policies to Raise Achievement

Answer 60

• Reading champions / playing for success / dads and sons=improving literacy skills and motivation to achieve
• Ringrose=moral panic about boys failing=neglect of problems faced by girls

Question 61

Gender Differences in Achievement- Gender and Subject Choice

Answer 61

• National curriculum=girls choose food tech and boys choose wood tech
• Post-16 education=more choice and bigger gender differences=boys choose maths and physics and girls choose MFL, English and sociology
• Vocational subjects=gender segregation at greatest=only 1% construction apprentices are female

Question 62

Gender Differences in Achievement- Gender and Subject Choice- Explanation- Gender Role Socialisation

Answer 62

• Gender role socialisation=learning behaviour expected of males and females in society
• Family=boys and girls dressed differently and given different toys- boys rewarded active and girls rewarded passive
• School=Byrne=encourage boys toughness and initiative and expect girls to be quite and helpful
• Leisure reading and subject choice=Murphy+Elwood=boys read hobby books and girls read stories

Question 63

Gender Differences in Achievement- Gender and Subject Choice- Explanation- Gender Domains

Answer 63

• Gender domains=tasks and activities seen as either male or female territory shaped by schemas
• Browne+Ross=boys designed power boats/battleships and girls designed cruise ships

Question 64

Gender Differences in Achievement- Gender and Subject Choice- Explanation- Gendered Subject Images

Answer 64

• Science=taught by men and textbooks use boys interests as examples
• Seen as masculine subject- part of male gender domain- so taken mostly by boys

Question 65

Gender Differences in Achievement- Gender and Subject Choice- Explanation- Gender Identity and Peer Pressure

Answer 65

• Boys and girls pressurise individuals to conform
• Boys opt out of music because negative peer response and girls who choose sport deal with accusations of being butch or lesbian

Question 66

Gender Differences in Achievement- Gender and Subject Choice- Explanation- Gendered Career Opportunities

Answer 66

• Jobs seen as men’s or women’s and dominated by one gender
• vocational courses therefore also dominated by one gender or another
• W/C pupils may make decisions about courses based on traditional gender identity

Question 67

Gender Differences in Achievement- Pupils’ Sexual and Gender Identities

Answer 67

• Connell=school reproduces hegemonic masculinity- dominance of heterosexual masculine identity/subordination of female and gay identities
• Feminists=experiences in school act as form of social control to reproduce patriarchy

Question 68

Gender Differences in Achievement- Pupils’ Sexual and Gender Identities- Double Standards

Answer 68

• Double standards exist when one set of moral standards is applied to one group but different set to another
• Lees=boys boast about their own sexual exploits but label girls’ negatively for same behaviour

Question 69

Gender Differences in Achievement- Pupils’ Sexual and Gender Identities- Verbal Abuse

Answer 69

• Name-calling puts girls down if behave in certain ways and acts as form of control for conformity to make expectations
• Lees=boys call girls slags if appear sexually available but no equivalent for males
• Mac an Ghaill=anti-school W/C boys subcultures use verbal abuse to reinforce definitions of masculinity

Question 70

Gender Differences in Achievement- Pupils’ Sexual and Gender Identities- Male Gaze

Answer 70

• Male gaze=form of social control where male pupils and teachers look girls up and down as sexual objects
• Boys who don’t participate labelled as gay

Question 71

Gender Differences in Achievement- Pupils’ Sexual and Gender Identities- Female Peer Groups: Policing Identity

Answer 71

• Archer=W/C girls gain symbolic capital when perform hyper-heterosexual identity
  Female peers police this identity and risk being called tramp if don’t conform
• Ringrose=W/C girls tension between idealised feminine identity and sexualised identity
• Slut shaming and frigid shaming are social control labels with which police each others identities

Question 72

Gender Differences in Achievement- Pupils’ Sexual and Gender Identities- Teachers and Discipline

Answer 72

• Haywood+Mac an Ghaill=male teachers reinforced gender identities by telling boys off for behaving like girls and ignoring boys’ verbal abuse of girls

Question 73

The Role of Education in Society- Functionalist Perspective- Durkheim: Solidarity and Skills

Answer 73

• Durkheim=education promotes social solidarity
  By transmitting society’s shared culture education binds people together and enables cooperation
  Same past and common purpose
  Universalistic rules
• Durkheim=education prepares young people for work
  Equips people with specialist skills needed to participate in work in modern economy

Question 74

The Role of Education in Society- Functionalist Perspective- Parsons: Socialisation and Meritocracy

Answer 74

• Parsons=school is focal socialising agency of modern society
• Secondary socialisation=universalistic standards and bridge between family and wider society
  Socialises individuals into shared values of meritocratic society
• Meritocracy
  Individual achievement
  Equal opportunity
• Society in miniature=school is miniature version of wider society

Question 75

The Role of Education in Society- Functionalist Perspective- Davis and Moore: Role Allocation

Answer 75

• Davis+Moore- Role allocation=selection and allocation of individuals into future work roles
• Some more talented than others / some work roles more complex / most talented allocated to most important jobs / sifts and sorts / society more productive
• Human capital theory=modern industrial society technologically advanced=skills of workforce main economic asset

Question 76

The Role of Education in Society- Functionalist Perspective- Evaluation

Answer 76

• Marxists=values transmitted by education not society’s shared values but those of ruling class
• Education not meritocratic as schools discriminate against some groups and don’t equal opportunity
• Hargreaves=more value on competition that developing social solidarity
• Interactionists=too deterministic

Question 77

The Role of Education in Society- Neoliberalism and New Right Perspective

Answer 77

• Neoliberalism=state should not provide education- schools more like businesses
• New right=political

Question 78

The Role of Education in Society- Neoliberalism and New Right Perspective- Functionalism and New Right Compared

Answer 78

• Believe some people more talented than others
• Education run on meritocratic principles of open competition
• Education should socialise pupils into shared values and provide sense national identity

Question 79

The Role of Education in Society- Market vs State- Solution: Marketisation

Answer 79

• One size fits all
  Education does not meet individual and community needs, or needs employers for skilled/motivated workers
• Lower standards
  State-run schools not accountable to those who use them and so inefficient
  Schools with poor results=no change as not answerable to consumers
  =lower standards and less qualified workforce
• Marketisation=intro into areas run by state of market forces of consumer choice and competition between suppliers
  Education market=schools respond to needs of pupils, parents and employers

Question 80

The Role of Education in Society- Market vs State- Chubb and Moe: Consumer Choice

Answer 80

• Chubb+Moe=low income families 5% better in private schools=education not meritocratic
• Failed to create equal opportunity as not respond to pupil needs
• Introduce market system in state education=give control to consumers
  Voucher system spend on buying education from school of choice

Question 81

The Role of Education in Society- Market vs State- State Any Role In Education?

Answer 81

• New right:
• State should create framework of competition between schools
• State should ensure school transmits society’s shared culture through curriculum emphasising shared national identity

Question 82

The Role of Education in Society- Market vs State- Evaluation New Right

Answer 82

• Low standards in state schools=inadequate funding rather than state control
• Gewirtz=competition between schools benefit M/C who get children into more desirable schools
• Marxists=education imposes culture of ruling class

Question 83

The Role of Education in Society- Marxist Perspective- Althusser: Ideological State Apparatus

Answer 83

• Repressive state apparatus=to protect capitalist interests, state uses force to repress W/C
• Ideological state apparatus=controls people’s ideas, values and beliefs
  =Reproduces class inequality=same jobs as parents
  =Legitimation class inequality=producing ideologies that disguise true cause- inequality is inevitable

Question 84

The Role of Education in Society- Marxist Perspective- Bowles and Gintis- Correspondence Principle

Answer 84

• Correspondence principle=how relationships and structures found in education mirror world of work
  Alienation / authority / competition / uniform / punctuality

Question 85

The Role of Education in Society- Marxist Perspective- Bowles and Gintis- Hidden Curriculum

Answer 85

• Hidden curriculum=all lessons learnt in school without being directly taught
• Through everyday workings of school=acceptance of hierarchy, competition, alienation
  Normal way to think and be

Question 86

The Role of Education in Society- Marxist Perspective- Bowles and Gintis- Myth of Meritocracy

Answer 86

• Myth of meritocracy=success based on class background, not ability or educational achievement
• By promoting rewards based on ability=myth of meritocracy persuades workers to accept inequality and position as legitimate

Question 87

The Role of Education in Society- Marxist Perspective- Bowles and Gintis- Role Allocation

Answer 87

• Allocates most talented people meritocratically to most important and best important roles
  Obedient students=best grades
• Education system rewards those who conform to qualities required of future workforce

Question 88

The Role of Education in Society- Marxist Perspective- Willis: Learning to Labour

Answer 88

• Rejecting correspondence principle- W/C pupils resist attempts to indoctrinate them in school
  =partially see through meritocratic ideology claiming W/C pupils get on through hard work
• Counter-school culture=opposed to school- flouted school rules
• By resisting schools ideology, culture guarantees failure=end up in manual work that capitalism needs them to perform

Question 89

The Role of Education in Society- Marxist Perspective- Willis: Learning to Labour- Business and Education

Answer 89

• Marketisation policies, privatisation of educational services, business sponsorship of state schools=more direct capitalist control over education
• Education system provides willing workforce for capitalism while making profits for capitalists

Question 90

The Role of Education in Society- Marxist Perspective- Evaluation

Answer 90

• Exposed myth of meritocracy and how education system serves interests of capitalism
• Postmodernists=Marxism out of date
  Class divisions not important in fragmented society
  Inequality=diversity and choice
• Feminists=schools reproduce patriarchy
• Marxists Willis disagrees with Marxists Bowles+Gintis

Question 91

Educational Policy- Overview

Answer 91

• Educational policy=government strategies for education, introduced through legal changes and instructions to schools
• Tripartite system=grammar / secondary modern
  Selection by 11+ exam
  Legitimating class inequality
• Comprehensive system=abolished 11+
  =functionalists- meritocratic as pupils longer to develop and promoting integration
  =marxists- reproducing inequality through streaming and labelling- myth of meritocracy

Question 92

Educational Policy- Marketisation Policies

Answer 92

=introducing market forces of consumer choice and competition into areas run by the state- league tables / formula funding / free schools / academies
Parentocracy=policies give parents greater choice and raise standards

• Reproduction of inequality:
  =league tables- best schools can cream-skin and silt-shift
  =funding formula- good schools get more money and attract more pupils
  =parental choice- Gewirtz=M/C privileged skilled-choosers take advantage of system / W/C disconnected-local choosers settle for nearest school / W/C semi-skilled choosers frustrated by inability
  =myth of parentocracy- legitimates inequality by seeming as if parents equally free choose good school
• New Labour policies:
  =maintained marketisation polices but aimed reduce inequality- Education Action Zones in disadvantaged areas
  ~ left private education system untouched
  ~ ensures W/C pupils stay disadvantaged

Question 93

Educational Policy- Conservative Policies

Answer 93

• Neoliberalism and privatisation:
  State commissions private companies to provide services
  =academies- funded by central government
  =free schools- state-funded and run by parents
  =fragmented centralisation- leading to greater inequality with education being more centralised
  =spending cuts- cancelled out pupil premium
• Privatisation of education:
  =education is privatised commodity- source of profit for capitalists
  =blurring public/private boundary- public sector employees move to private education businesses bringing insider knowledge
  =globalisation of policy- exporting UK education policy for sale abroad
  =cola-isation of schools- private sector sells to pupils
• Ethnicity and policy:
  =encourage assimilation
  =valuing all cultures through multi-cultural education policies
  =social inclusion
  =policies reducing gender inequalities and promoting non-traditional subject choices