Research Methods Flashcards
1
Q
Choosing a Research Method- Primary and Secondary
A
- Primary data=collected by sociologists themselves for their own purposes
Social surveys / participant observation / experiments
Precise info to test hypotheses +
Costly and time consuming - - Secondary data=collected by someone else for their purposes but applied to sociologists research
Official statistics / documents
Quick and cheap +
Not as precise -
2
Q
Choosing a Research Method- Quantitative and Qualitative
A
- Quantitative=numerical data
Questionnaires / structured interviews / official statistics - Qualitative=non-numerical data
Participant observation / unstructured interviews / letters / newspaper articles
3
Q
Choosing a Research Method- Factors Influencing Choice Of Methods- Practical Issues
A
=time and money
=requirements of funding bodies
=personal skills and characteristics
=subject matter
=research opportunity
4
Q
Choosing a Research Method- Factors Influencing Choice Of Methods- Ethical Issues
A
=informed consent
=confidentiality and privacy
=harm to research participants =vulnerable groups
=covert research
5
Q
Choosing a Research Method- Factors Influencing Choice Of Methods- Theoretical Issues
A
- Validity
True or genuine picture of what something is really like (accuracy)
Qualitative methods - Reliability
Extent to which study replicates exactly and produces same results
Quantitative methods - Representativeness
How well people in study typical of cross-section of group we’re interested in
Can make generalisations
Large-scale quantitative surveys - Methodological perspective
View of what society is like and how we should study it
Positivism- quantitative, patterns, sociology=science
Interpretivism- qualitative, meanings, sociology is not a science
6
Q
Choosing a Research Method- Factors Influencing Choice Of Methods- Factors Influencing Choice Of Topic
A
- Sociologists perspective
New right / feminist / Marxist / functionalist - Society’s values
As values change, so does focus of research - Practical factors
Inaccessibility of certain situations restricts topics able to study - Funding bodies
As paying for research, they will determine topic to be investigated
7
Q
Choosing a Research Method- The Process of Research- Formulating an Aim or Hypothesis
A
- Aim=a statement that identifies what a sociologist intends to study
More open-ended (gather data on anything interesting) +
Interpretivists=understanding actors meanings- qualitative - Hypothesis=a possible explanation that can be tested by collecting evidence to prove it true or false
Gives direction to research +
Positivists=cause and effect relationships- quantitative methods
8
Q
Choosing a Research Method- The Process of Research- Operationalising Concepts
A
- Operationalisation=the process of converting a concept into something measurable
- Problems arise when different sociologists operationalise the same concept differently=hard to compare findings of different pieces of research
- Positivists=importance place on creating and testing hypotheses
9
Q
Choosing a Research Method- The Process of Research- Pilot Study
A
- Pilot study=a small scale trial run, usually of a social survey, conducted before the main study- iron out any problems, so changes can be made before main study carried out
10
Q
Choosing a Research Method- The Process of Research- Samples and Sampling
A
- Sample=smaller sub-group drawn from the wider group that we are interested in
- Sampling=the process of creating to selecting a sample
- to ensure the people we have chosen in the study are representative of the research population (whole group we are interested in) so can generalise any findings
- Positivists=general, law-like statements about wider social structure
11
Q
Choosing a Research Method- The Process of Research- Samples and Sampling- Sampling Frame
A
- Sampling frame=list of all members of population we are interested in studying
- as compete and accurate as possible / up to date and without duplications
12
Q
Choosing a Research Method- The Process of Research- Samples and Sampling- Sampling Techniques
A
- Random sampling=sample is selected purely by chance
Everyone has equal chance of being selected
Needs to be large enough to reflect characteristics of research population - Quasi-random / Systematic sampling=every nth person in sampling frame is selected
- Stratified sampling=researcher breaks down population in sampling frame (strata) and sample created in same proportions
- Quota sampling=population stratified and interviewer given quota which have to fill with respondents who fit characteristics
13
Q
Choosing a Research Method- The Process of Research- Samples and Sampling- Non-representative sampling
A
- Practical reasons
Social characteristics of research population not known
Impossible to find/create sampling frame for research population
Potential respondents refuse to participate - Snowball sampling=collecting sample by contacting individuals who suggest others to be interviewed and so on
Useful to contact people difficult to find/persuade +
Not representative- - Opportunity sampling=choosing from individuals easiest to access
Not representative -
Convenient + - Theoretical reasons
May not choose representative sample due to methodological perspective
Interpretivists=more important valid data and understanding of meanings than to discover general laws
14
Q
Education: The Research Context- Research Characteristics- Researching Pupils- Power and Status
A
- Children=less power/status than adults=less likely to change views openly
- Teachers=higher status/power over pupils
- Structured interviews/questionnaires reinforce power situations=researcher in charge of questions- group interviews=better way to overcome this
15
Q
Education: The Research Context- Research Characteristics- Researching Pupils- Ability and Understanding
A
- Pupils vocab, self-expression, thinking skills and confidence=more limited than adults
- Sociologist needs to word questions in way that can be understood and try reinforce nature of informed consent (which is difficult to get out of children)
- May match gender and ethnicity of pupil to researcher to account for different language codes etc
16
Q
Education: The Research Context- Research Characteristics- Researching Pupils- Vulnerability and Ethical Issues
A
- Young people more vulnerable to physical/psychological harm than adults=more limited power and ability
- Sociologist should consider whether young people in research is necessary / whether stand to benefit from it
- Difficult to gain informed consent from child
- More gatekeepers controlling access to pupils=more difficult research carried out
17
Q
Education: The Research Context- Research Characteristics- Researching Pupils- Laws and Guidelines
A
- Child protection laws=vetting and barring scheme on adults in schools=DBS checks=delay/prevent researchers carrying out research
- Sociologists will have access to pupils as required to be in school- not the case if target group=pupils with anti-school attitudes
Although pupils only in school during day/term time
18
Q
Education: The Research Context- Research Characteristics- Researching Teachers- Power and Status
A
- Teachers=more power and status due to experience and responsibilities=may view researcher as trespasser in their classroom
- Researcher may need to invent cover of cover investigation=supply teacher=lower status so may not be treated as equal
19
Q
Education: The Research Context- Research Characteristics- Researching Teachers- Impression Management
A
- May me more willing to be observed by researcher due to experience with ofsted inspections
- Goffman=impression management=manipulating impression that other people have of us
Act differently front stage with a role, as opposed to backstage like in staff room- although newcomer would stand out here - Teachers aware any critical comments they make=affect career prospects=reluctant to answer questions honestly
Overcome using observational methods - Head teachers (gatekeeper)=influence teacher involved in research and may not be representative
20
Q
Education: The Research Context- Research Characteristics- Researching Classrooms
A
21
Q
Experiments- Laboratory
A
- Positivists=reliable as standardised so can be repeated- quantitative and scientifically collected
- Interpretivists=do not translate to social behaviour and low in validity
- Problems:
=artificiality- lowers validity
=identifying and controlling variables
=Hawthorne effect
=ethical issues
=limited application
free will
22
Q
Experiments- Field
A
- Advantages:
=less artificiality
=validity - Disadvantages:
=less control over variables
=limited application
=ethical issues - The comparative method=thought experiment involving two of the same groups with one different characteristic- avoids artificiality/can study past/no ethical issues/no control
23
Q
Questionnaires
A
- Advantages- Positivists:
=quick, cheap, large amount of data
=reliable
=hypothesis testing- scientific
=detachment and objectivity
=representativeness - Disadvantages- Interpretivists:
=limited information
=low response rate
=inflexibility
=detachment- lacks validity
=social desirability bias
=researcher bias- imposing meanings
24
Q
Interviews- Structured
A
- Advantages- Positivists:
=reliable- standardised
=representativeness- quick and large sample
=cost-effective
=interviewer-interviewee contact
=limited interviewer effect - Disadvantages- Interpretivists:
=lack of validity- open to interpretation / may not be truthful / prevents elaboration
=unreliable- way questions asked differ
=costly- train interviewers
=social sensitivity
=Feminists argue patriarchal
25
Interviews- Unstructured
- Advantages- Interpretivists:
=high in validity- more honest and can elaborate / no imposing of ideas / flexible / data-rich
- Disadvantages- Positivists:
=not as valid as seems- subjective / impose ideas on interpretation of data
=unreliable- not standardised
=unrepresentative- smaller sample
=social sensitivity
=costly- train interviewers
=relevance questioned
=group interviews- conformity
26
Observation- Participant
- Advantages- Interpretivists:
=high in validity- naturalistic / authentic / open research process / offers insight / data-rich / flexible / studying closed groups
- Disadvantages- Positivists:
=unreliable- not standardised
=unrepresentative- carried out on small, specific groups
=validity issues- Hawthorne effect / going native
=ethical issues
=getting in / staying in / getting out
27
Observation- Structured
- Advantages- Positivists:
=reliable- standardised
=data produced quickly and easy to analyse
- Disadvantages- Interpretivists:
=lack validity- event sampling offers no meaning- operationalisation of behavioural categories
=only useful in small-scale interactions
28
Official Statistics
- Advantages- Positivists:
=availability
=representativeness
=wide coverage
=act as prompts to research
=comparability of data
=reliable
- Disadvantages- Interpretivists:
=definitions and measurements vary- reduces validity
=not entirely reliable- open to manipulation
=social construction
=Marxists argue politically bias- reflecting ruling-class ideology
=Feminists argue male bias- women not accounted for
29
Documents- Personal
- Advantages- Interpretivists:
=high validity with genuine insight
=cheap and save the researcher time
- Disadvantages- Positivists:
=some groups don't have personal documents
=some documents created after the event
=personal bias
30
Documents- Public
- Historical documents:
=only way we can study past societies
=interpretation problems
=unrepresentative as some may be lost/destroyed
- Content analysis:
=measures amount of coverage given to particular issue
=correlation not causation
=qualitative examines meanings- interpretation issues
- Testing usefulness of documents:
=authenticity
=credibility
=representativeness
=meaning
