Beliefs In Society

Question 1

Theories Of Religion- What Is Religion- Substantive Definitions

Answer 1

• content or substance of religious belief
• Weber- belief in superior or supernatural power above nature and cannot be explained scientifically
• exclusive- drawing clear line between religious and non-religious beliefs
• ignore beliefs and practices similar to religion if have no God
• western bias

Question 2

Theories Of Religion- What Is Religion- Functional Definitions

Answer 2

• social/psychological functions religion performs for society
• Durkheim- contribution it makes to social integration
• Yinger- functions it performs like answering ultimate questions
• inclusive- wide range of beliefs and practices
• no western bias
• just because institution can integrate individuals, does not make it a religion

Question 3

Theories Of Religion- What Is Religion- Constructionist Definitions

Answer 3

• how members of society define religion- cannot have universal definition as can mean different things
• Aldridge- Scientology is religion but governments sought to ban it- influenced by power to define situation
• does not assume always involves belief in God or similar in all societies
• close to personal meanings
• cannot generalise nature of religion

Question 4

Theories Of Religion- Functionalist- Durkheim- Sacred and Profane

Answer 4

• Durkheim- developed idea religion plays part in creating and maintaining value consensus, order and solidarity
• sacred- things set apart and forbidden, inspire awe, fear and wonder, surrounded by taboos and prohibitions
• profane- things that have no special significance, ordinary and mundane
• religion involves practices in relation to sacred and are collective
• sacred=powerful feelings=symbols representing great power (society)
• although scared symbols vary, all unite believers into single moral community

Question 5

Theories Of Religion- Functionalist- Durkheim- Totemism

Answer 5

• Durkheim- essence of all religion found by studying simplest form in simplest (clan) society
• Arunta clan- rituals involving worship of totem- clan emblem=reinforce group’s solidarity and sense of belonging
• when worship totem=worship society
• inspires awe as totem represents power of group

Question 6

Theories Of Religion- Functionalist- Durkheim- Collective Conscience

Answer 6

• Durkheim- sacred symbols represent society’s collective conscience (shared norms, values, beliefs, knowledge that make social life and cooperation possible)
• regular rituals=reinforce collective conscience and maintain social integration- reminding them of power of society
• important function for individual- reinvigorates and strengthens us to face life’s trials

Question 7

Theories Of Religion- Functionalist- Durkheim- Cognitive Functions

Answer 7

• Durkheim- religion is source of ability to reason and think conceptually
• religion is origin of concepts and categories we need for reasoning, understanding and communicating

Question 8

Theories Of Religion- Functionalist- Durkheim- Criticisms

Answer 8

• Worsley- no sharp division between sacred and profane and different clans share same totem
• difficult to apply theory to large-scale societies where religious communities have conflict
• Mestrovic- ideas cannot be applied to contemporary society as diversity has fragmented collective conscience, so religion cannot reinforce this

Question 9

Theories Of Religion- Functionalist- Psychological Functions

Answer 9

• Malinowski- agree with Durkheim that religion promotes solidarity but does so by helping cope with stress that would undermine solidarity
• where outcome is important but uncontrollable and uncertain
  lagoon fishing- safe, predictable, no ritual
  ocean fishing- dangerous, uncertain, canoe magic- sense of control, confidence that reinforces solidarity
• at times of life crises
  religion helps to minimise disruption when birth, death, marriage
  funeral rituals reinforce feelings of solidarity

Question 10

Theories Of Religion- Functionalist- Parsons: Values and Meaning

Answer 10

• Parsons- religion helps to cope with unforeseen events and uncontrollable outcomes
• creates and legitimates society’s central values
  Through making them sacred- promoting value consensus and social stability
• the primary source of meaning
  Answers ultimate questions about human condition- enabling adjustment to adverse events and helps maintain stability

Question 11

Theories Of Religion- Functionalist- Civil Religion

Answer 11

• Bellah- how religion unifies society, especially in multi-faith society like America
• Civil religion=belief system that attaches sacred qualities to society
• integrates society in way that churches/denominations cannot
• America=loyalty to nation state and belief in God

Question 12

Theories Of Religion- Functionalist- Functional Alternatives

Answer 12

• non-religious beliefs and practices that perform similar functions to those of organised religion
• Nazi Germany and Soviet Union=non-religious political beliefs and rituals around which sought to unite society
• ignores what makes religion distinctive and different

Question 13

Theories Of Religion- Functionalist- Evaluation

Answer 13

• emphasises social nature of religion and positive functions
• neglects negative aspects of religion
• ignores religion as source of division and conflict
• is civil religion really a religion if it is not based on belief in the supernatural?

Question 14

Theories Of Religion- Marxist- Religion As Ideology

Answer 14

• religion is feature of class-divided society- no need for religion in classless society and it will disappear
• Marx- ideology=belief system distorting perception of reality to serve interests of ruling class- ruling class controls ideas in society through church
• religion=ideological weapon that legitimates suffering of poor as inevitable and god-given- creates false consciousness (prevents poor from acting to change situation)
• Lenin- spiritual gin=intoxicant given by ruling class to confuse poor through ‘mystical fog’ and keep in place
• religion legitimates power and privilege of ruling class by making position seem divinely ordained

Question 15

Theories Of Religion- Marxist- Religion and Alienation

Answer 15

• Marx- religion=product of alienation (separation/loss control over what have produced or created)
• in dehumanising conditions, exploited turn to religion as form of consolidation
• Marx- religion is the opium of the people, dulling pain of exploitation- masking underlying problem that creates need for it
• religion arises out of suffering and acts as consolation for it, while failing to deal with cause

Question 16

Theories Of Religion- Marxist- Evaluation

Answer 16

• shows how religion tool of oppression that masks exploitation and creates false consciousness
• ignores positive functions of religion- Neo-Marxists=assists class consciousness
• Althusser- alienation=unscientific and based on romantic idea that humans have a true self
• does not function effectively as ideology to control population

Question 17

Theories Of Religion- Feminist- Evidence Of Patriarchy

Answer 17

• religion is a patriarchal institution that reflects and perpetuates this inequality
• religious organisations=male-dominated despite fact women participate more
  Armstrong- exclusion priesthood=evidence marginalisation
• places of worship=segregate sexes and marginalise women
  Holm- devaluation of women in religion when menstruating cannot touch Qur’an
• sacred texts=doing of male gods, written and interpreted by men
• Armstrong- early religions placed women at centre
• El Saadawi- religion not direct cause of subordination

Question 18

Theories Of Religion- Feminist- Religious Forms Of Feminism

Answer 18

• Woodhead- not all religion is patriarchal- religious forms of feminism=ways in which women use religion to gain greater freedom/respect
• Gilliat-Ray- hijab=symbol of liberation that allows them to enter public sphere without being immodest
• Brusco- belonging to Pentecostal group in Colombia=empowering for some women- men should respect women
• Piety movements=conservative movements that support traditional teachings- can find ways to further own interests
• Liberal Protestant organisations
  Committed to gender equality and women play leading roles

Question 19

Religion and Social Change- Religion As A Conservative Force

Answer 19

• conservative force as:
  Upholds traditional beliefs about how society should be organised

Functions to conserve or preserve things as they are- stabilising society and maintaining status quo

Question 20

Religion and Social Change- Religion As A Conservative Force- Religion’s Beliefs

Answer 20

• most religions=traditional conservative beliefs and oppose changes that would allow more freedom
• most religions=uphold family values and favour patriarchal division of labour

Question 21

Religion and Social Change- Religion As A Conservative Force- Religion’s functions

Answer 21

• conservative force as functions to preserve and maintain status quo- held by functionalists, Marxists and feminists
• religion and consensus
  Functionalists=religions function to maintain social stability and prevent disintegration- helping to deal with stresses
  Marxists and Feminists=religion is ideology that supports social structure and acts as means of control
• religion and capitalism
  Marx- religion is conservative ideology preventing social change, legitimating exploitation, false consciousness that prevents revolution
• religion and patriarchy
  Feminists- religion acts as ideology legitimating patriarchal power and maintaining subordination

Question 22

Religion And Social Change- Weber: Religion As A Force For Change- Calvinist Beliefs

Answer 22

• predestination
  God has predetermined which souls would be saved and which would not- the decision was made and could not be altered
• divine transcendence
  No human being could possibly claim to know his will=salvation panic- could not know whether saved and couldn’t earn salvation
• asceticism
  Abstinence, self-discipline and self-denial
• idea of vocation or calling
  Constant, methodical work in an occupation
  Wealth and success=cope for salvation panic but did not spend any so reinvested it into economy
  Weber=first spirt of modern capitalism

Question 23

Religion And Social Change- Weber: Religion As A Force For Change- Hinduism And Confucianism

Answer 23

• Hinduism(like Calvinism)=ascetic religion, favouring renunciation of material world- directing followers toward spiritual world
• Confucianism(not like Calvinism)=directing followers toward material world but not ascetic
• Weber=Calvinism unique in combining asceticism with this-worldly orientation enabling capitalism to emerge

Question 24

Religion And Social Change- Weber: Religion As A Force For Change- Evaluation

Answer 24

• recognises material factors alone not enough to bring about capitalism
• Kautsky- overestimates role of ideas and underestimates economic factors- capitalism preceded Calvinism
• Tawney- technological change caused birth of capitalism
• capitalism did not develop in every county where there were Calvinists

Question 25

Religion And Social Change- Religion And Social Protest- American Civil Rights Movement

Answer 25

• Bruce-American civil rights movement=religiously motivated social change
• Led by Martin Luther King, gave support and moral legitimacy to civil rights activists
• Black clergy shamed white people into changing the law by appealing to their shared Christian values of equality
• religion is an ideological resource- providing beliefs and practices to draw motivation/support
• taking moral high ground / channelling dissent / acting as honest broker / mobilising public opinion

Question 26

Religion And Social Change- Religion And Social Protest- New Christian Right

Answer 26

• politically/morally conservative, protestant fundamentalist movement
• aim=take America back to God- abortion, homosxeulatiy, gar marriage and divorce illegal
  traditional family and traditional gender roles
• effective use of media and networking
• unsuccessful as (Bruce):
  campaigners difficulty cooperating with other religious groups, even on same issue
  lacks widespread support and strong opposition- overly negative

Question 27

Religion and Social Change- Marxism, Religion and Change- Bloch: Principle of Hope

Answer 27

• Religion=relative autonomy- partly independent of economic base=dual character for religion as force for change and stability
• Marx=heart of heartless world and soul of soulless conditions
• Engels=religion inhibits change by disguising inequality and challenges status quo while encouraging social change
• Bloch=principle of hope=dreams of better life that contains images of utopia
  religious beliefs=vision of better world and if combined with politics=social change

Question 28

Religion and Social Change- Marxism, Religion and Change- Liberation Theology

Answer 28

• strong commitment to poor and opposition to military dictatorships of the time
• factors leading liberation theology:
  deepening rural poverty and growth urban slums
  human rights abuses following military takeovers
  growing commitment of priests to support poor and oppose violation human rights
• set out to change society- priests=authoritative figures who established support groups
  lost influence since resembled Marxism
• Casanova=important part resisting state terror/bringing about democracy

Question 29

Religion and Social Change- Marxism, Religion and Change- Liberation Theology- Pentecostal Challenge

Answer 29

• Liberation Theology=option for poor- community consciousness
  -raising and campaigning social change
  ‘revolutionary priests and nuns in jeans and sandals’
• radical solution to poverty- collective improvement through political action in public sphere
• Pentecostalism=option of the poor- individuals pull selves out of poverty through own efforts
• conservative solution to poverty=self-improvement through private sphere of family and church
  church pastors ‘uniformly respectable in their suits’

Question 30

Religion and Social Change- Marxism, Religion and Change- Millenarian Movements

Answer 30

• Millenarian movements=referring to idea Christ come into world for second time and rule a thousand years before day of judgement and end of world
• Worsley=total and imminent transformation of world by supernatural means
  Heaven on earth
  Group will be saved
• Appeal to the poor as promise immediate improvement
• Worsley=cargo cults- deprived when cargo meant for them diverted to colonists for themselves
  Unjust social order would be overturned

Question 31

Religion and Social Change- Marxism, Religion and Change- Gramsci: Religion and Hegemony

Answer 31

• Gramsci- Hegemony(ideological domination)=way that ruling class use ideas such as religion to maintain control
  Ruling class rely on popular consent to rule so less need for coercion
• Counter-hegemony=when W/C develop alternative vision of how society should be organised
• Religion=dual character=challenge and support ruling class
  Popular forms of religion=workers see through W/C hegemony by offering vision of fairer world
• Organic intellectuals=educators, organisers and leader- help workers see situation in and support W/C organisations

Question 32

Religion and Social Change- Marxism, Religion and Change- Gramsci: Religion and Hegemony- Religion and Class Conflict

Answer 32

• Billings=applies Gramsci’s ideas- differences in levels of militancy understood in terms of hegemony and role of religion
• Leadership=miners benefitted from leadership of organic intellectuals, helping to convert them to union cause
  Textile workers lacked leadership
• Organisation=miners used churches to hold meetings and organise
  Textile workers lacked such spaces
• Support=churches kept miners morale high
  Textile workers met with opposition from local church leaders

Question 33

Secularisation- Statistics

Answer 33

• Secularisation=process whereby religious beliefs, practices and institutions lose social significance
• 4% adult population attend church on Sundays
• Church weddings and baptisms in decline too
• Religious affiliation=membership or identification with religion
  Continuing decline
• Religious belief declining
• Churches influence on public life declined significantly
  State taken over functions church used to have

Question 34

Secularisation- Explanations- Weber: Rationalisation

Answer 34

• Rationalisation=process by which rational ways of thinking and acting have replaced religious ones
• Weber=Protestant reformation (MLK) started rationalisation for west
• Medieval Catholic worldview=world was enchanted garden
  Protestant reformation worldview=God as transcendent- existing above and beyond this world
• Events no longer explained as work of supernatural but work of natural forces as world ran according to own principles after creator played no further part
  Rationality was needed to understand
• Protestant reformation=disenchantment of world
• Bruce=technological worldview- looking for scientific/technological explanations to explain why things happen

Question 35

Secularisation- Explanations- Structural Differentiation

Answer 35

• Parsons=structural differentiation- separate, specialised institutions develop to carry out functions previously performed by single institution
• Disengagement=religions functions transferred to other institutions and becomes disconnected from wider society
• Privatisation=Bruce- religion become confined to private sphere of home and family

Question 36

Secularisation- Explanations- Social and Cultural Diversity

Answer 36

• Decline of community=Wilson=due to move from pre-industrial to industrial society
  When religion lost basis lost vitality and hold over individuals
• Industrialisation=Bruce=undermining consensus of religious beliefs that hold communities together
• Diversity of occupations, cultures and lifestyles undermine religion=Bruce=plausibility of beliefs undermined by alternatives

Question 37

Secularisation- Explanations- Social and Cultural Diversity- Criticisms

Answer 37

• Aldridge:
  Religion=source of identity on global scale
  Some religious communities=imagined communities that interact through media
  Pentecostal groups flourish in impersonal areas

Question 38

Secularisation- Explanations- Religious Diversity

Answer 38

• Religious diversity=Berger= multiple religious organisations and interpretations of faith
• Sacred canopy=everyone lived with shared set of beliefs in European Catholic church
  =beliefs greater plausibility as no challengers
  =religious diversity=no church can claim monopoly of truth
  =religious diversity=plurality of life worlds
• Plausibility structure=religious diversity undermines these reasons why people find it believable

Question 39

Secularisation- Explanations- Religious Diversity- Criticisms

Answer 39

• Internal criticism from Berger=diversity and choice stimulate interest and participation in religion
• Beckford=agrees religious diversity leads some to question/abandon religious beliefs

Question 40

Secularisation- Explanations- Cultural Defence and Transition

Answer 40

• Bruce=counter-trends that oppose secularisation theory
• Cultural defence= religion provides focal point for defence of national, ethnic, local or group identity in struggle against external forces
• Cultural transition=religion provides support and sense of community for ethnic groups
• Religion survives in such situations only because focus for group identity- most likely to survive where performs functions other than relating people to supernatural

Question 41

Secularisation- USA- Declining Church Attendance

Answer 41

• 45% Americans attend church but more expression of American way of life
• Attendance stats an overexaggeration:
  Hadaway=attendance 83% higher than researchers counted going to church

Question 42

Secularisation- USA- Secularisation from Within

Answer 42

• Bruce=evidence traditional beliefs and glorifying god declined- religion has become psychologised
• American religion remained popular by becoming less religious
• Purpose changed from seeking salvation to seeking personal improvement

Question 43

Secularisation- USA- Religious Diversity and Relativism

Answer 43

• Bruce=practical relativism among American Christians- accepting others entitled hold beliefs different to own
• Lynd+Lynd=94% churchgoing young people agreed Christianity one true religion
• Absolutism eroded- live in society people hold views different to ours, undermining assumption own views absolutely true

Question 44

Religion, Renewal and Choice- New Forms of Religion- Believing Without Belonging

Answer 44

• Davie=religion not declining but taking more privatised form
• Attendance has declined as matter of personal choice rather than obligation
• Believing without belonging=hood religious beliefs but don’t go church
• Vicarious religion=small minority practice religion on behalf much larger group

Question 45

Religion, Renewal and Choice- New Forms of Religion- Spiritual Shopping

Answer 45

• Hervieu-Leger=supports personal choice and believing without belonging
• Cultural amnesia=loss of collective memory- lost religion used to be handed down generations
• Greater equality undermined church imposing religion from above
• Spiritual shoppers=individual consumerism (individualised)- developing own DIY beliefs
• Two new religious types emerged:
  Pilgrims=follow individual path in search self-discovery
  Converts=join religious groups offer sense belonging- recreates sense community

Question 46

Religion, Renewal and Choice- New Forms of Religion- Postmodern Religion

Answer 46

• Lyon=postmodern society changing nature religion- globalisation, media, consumerism
• Relocation of religion=increased movement religious ideas across national boundaries
  Media=access to ideas and beliefs of religions=disembedded as out of context and moved to different place and time=religion de-institutionalised- detached from their place and adapted for own purposes
• Religious consumerism
  Spiritual shoppers=choosing religious beliefs for individual needs- pick and mix different faiths to make part of identity
  Lyon=sphere of consumption
  Loss faith in meta-narratives
  Dominant organisations lose authority and decline
  Re-enchantment of the world

Question 47

Religion, Renewal and Choice- New Forms of Religion- Self-religions and the New Age

Answer 47

• New Age=rejects obligation and obedience to external authority found in transactional religions- emphasising personal development
• Individualism=free to decide for yourself what is true

Question 48

Religion, Renewal and Choice- New Forms of Religion- Spiritual Revolution?

Answer 48

• Spiritual revolution=traditional Christianity giving way to New Age spirituality and therapies
• Heelas+Woodhead=Kendal
  Congregational domain of traditional and evangelical Christian churches
  Holistic Milieu of spirituality and New Age
• Within congregational domain, traditions losing support evangelical churches holding own
• Explanation trends:
  New Age grown due to subjective turn in culture- shift towards exploring inner self
  Evangelical churches more successful as emphasise subjective aspects
  In spiritual marketplace winners=appeal to personal experience as only source of meaning and fulfilment

Question 49

Religion, Renewal and Choice- New Forms of Religion- Weakness of New Age

Answer 49

• Bruce=New Age too weak fill gap left by decline of traditional religion:
  Scale=growth should be on larger scale to fill gap
  Socialisation=belief system can only survive if passed down next generation
  Weak commitment=serious commitment to New Age is rare
  Structural weakness=lacks cohesion as everyone free to believe what wish

Question 50

Religion, Renewal and Choice- Religious Market Theory

Answer 50

• Stark+Bainbridge=criticise secularisation for distorted view of past and future
  =People are naturally religious and religion meets human needs
  =People make rational choices based on costs and benefits of religious options
• Religion attractive as provides supernatural compensators when real rewards unobtainable
• Historical cycle of religious decline, revival and renewal
• Competition leads to improvement of quality of religious goods on offer
• America vs Europe:
  USA=strong religion as religion grows/declines due to demand
  Europe=religious monopoly=lack of choice=decline

Question 51

Religion, Renewal and Choice- Existential Security Theory

Answer 51

• Norris+Inglehart=reject religious market theory as only applies to America
• Such variations due to existential security=feeling survival is secure enough that can be take for granted
  =religion meets need for security- insecure societies=high demand
  =poor third world countries remain religious
• Europe vs America:
  Western Europe more secular as societies equal and secure with welfare states that reduce insecurity- USA remains religious
• Gill+Lundegaarde=more country spends welfare=lower level religious participation

Question 52

Religion in a Global Context- Religious Fundamentalism- Characteristics

Answer 52

• Authoritative sacred text=every word of bible is literally true with the answer to all life’s questions- biblical prophecies will be fulfilled- intolerant of others
• Us and them mentality=separate from rest of world and refuse to compromise
• Aggressive reaction to threat to their beliefs
• Use of modern technology
• Patriarchy
• Conspiracy theories

Question 53

Religion in a Global Context- Religious Fundamentalism- Fundamentalism and Modernity

Answer 53

• Arises only when those who hold traditional beliefs feel threatened by modernity
• Davie=fundamentalists themselves are products of modernity
• Cosmopolitanism=way of thinking that embraces modernity, tolerant, open, reflexive thinking (opposite fundamentalists)- lifestyle is personal choice, pursuit of meaning and self-improvement

Question 54

Religion in a Global Context- Religious Fundamentalism- Criticisms of Giddens

Answer 54

• Ignores other ways globalisation and modernity affect religion
• Ignores differences in fundamentalisms
• Claims fundamentalism reaction against modernity but reinventing tradition is itself modern

Question 55

Religion in a Global Context- Religious Fundamentalism- Monotheism and Fundamentalism

Answer 55

• Bruce=main cause is perception by religious traditionalists that globalisation threatens their beliefs and lifestyle=develop rigid rules about belief
• Fundamentalism confined to monotheistic religion- believing in one god

Question 56

Religion in a Global Context- Religious Fundamentalism- Two Fundamentalisms

Answer 56

• Bruce=different fundamentalist movements have different origins
• West=reaction to change within society- trends towards diversity and choice
• Third world=reaction to change thrust on society from outside- Western values imposed by foreign capitalism

Question 57

Religion in a Global Context- Religious Fundamentalism- Secular Fundamentalism

Answer 57

• Davie=rise of secular fundamentalism due to changes in nature of modern society
• First phase of modernity:
  Enlightenment project=optimistic belief in certainty of progress based on science and human reason
  Helped to secularise all areas social life, undermining religious certainties
• Second phase of modernity:
  Growing mood of pessimism, uncertainty and insecurity
  Postmodernism emerged arguing secular enlightenment ideologies were meta-narratives whose belief in progress was unfounded
  =secular ideologies under attack and in reaction some attracted to anti-religious fundamentalism
• Ansell=trends are form of cultural racism that legitimate the exclusion of religious minorities
• Davie=both religious and secular movements can become fundamentalist due to greater uncertainties postmodern world

Question 58

Religion in a Global Context- Clash of Civilisations

Answer 58

• Huntington=global conflicts have intensified since collapse of communism and are symptoms of wider clash of civilisations
  =western/Latin America/Confucian/Japanese/Islamic/Hindu/Slavic-orthodox
• Religious differences=major source identity- globalisation=contact between civilisations easier=increased likelihood conflicts
• Religious differences=us and them relationships, increased competition for power
• Real clash of civilisations
  Issue dividing west from Muslim world not democracy but sexuality- Greta differences in divorce, abortion, gender equality, gay rights
  Western attitudes more liberal but Muslim more traditional

Question 59

Religion in a Global Context- Cultural Defence

Answer 59

• Bruce=religion unites community against external threat giving it prominent role in politics- religion symbolises groups identity
• Poland:
  Under communist rule imposed from Soviet Union, Catholic Church=rallying point for opposition
• Iran:
  Western capitalist power long influence, policy of rapid modernisation and westernisation- Islam focus resistance to change

Question 60

Religion in a Global Context- Religion and Development

Answer 60

• Globalisation=rapid economic growth in India and rising prosperity to M/C
  Nanda=role of Hinduism in legitimating rise ultra-nationalism and prosperity M/C
• Prosperous M/C=first to adopt secular worldview
• Increasing religiosity due to M/C ambivalence about newfound wealth, stemming from tension between new prosperity and traditional Hindu belief in renouncing materialism
  =resolved by modern holy men and tele-gurus who preach desire not bad but manifestation of divinity
  =legitimate position M/C and allow adjustment to globalised consumer capitalism
  =legitimates triumphant version Indian nationalism
  =Hinduism penetrated public life and secular state

Question 61

Religion in a Global Context- Pentecostalism in Latin America

Answer 61

• Berger=Pentecostalism in Latin America acts as functional equivalent to Weber’s Protestant ethic- encouraging capitalism like Calvinism
  =Pentecostalism demands ascetic way of life emphasising disciple and hard work=prosperity and upwards mobility
  =necessary to promote economic development and raise society out of poverty
• Pentecostalism: global and local:
  Christianity globalised itself expanding into South America through colonisation with Christianity being imposed
  Spread and gained following from below
  Creates new local religious forms, incorporating local beliefs
  Led to Africanisation of Christianity in Africa rather than total disappearance of indigenous religions

Question 62

Organisations, Movements and Members- Types of Religious Organisation- Church and Sect

Answer 62

• Church
  =large, millions of members / few demands on members / bureaucratic hierarchy / claim monopoly of truth / universalistic / conservative / linked to state
• Sect
  =small, exclusive groups / real commitment from members / hostile wider society / recruit from poor and oppressed / charismatic leadership / monopoly of truth

Question 63

Organisations, Movements and Members- Types of Religious Organisation- Denomination and Cult

Answer 63

• Denomination
  =midway between churches and sects / membership less exclusive / accept society’s values / not linked to state / minor restrictions of members / tolerant other religions
• Cult
  =least organised / highly individualistic / small, loose knit groupings / without sharply defined belief system

Question 64

Organisations, Movements and Members- Types of Religious Organisation- New Religious Movements

Answer 64

• World-rejecting NRM’s eg. Branch Davidians
  =clear notion of god / highly critical outside world / members must break from normal life, live communally and have restricted contact outside world- controls all aspects of lives
• World-accommodating NRM’s eg. Neo-Pentecostalists
  =breakaways existing churches / neither accept nor reject world / religious rather than worldly matters / lead conventional lives
• World-affirming NRM’s eg. Scientology
  =lack conventional features of religion / access to spiritual powers / accept world as it is / promises followers success in their goals / customers rather than members

Question 65

Organisations, Movements and Members- Types of Religious Organisation- Sects and Cults

Answer 65

• Stark+Bainbridge=degree of tension between group and wider society distinguishes between religious organisations
  = sects=splits in existing organisations breaking away and offering other-worldly benefits to those suffering economic/ethical deprivation
  =cults=new religious or been imported and offering this-worldly benefits to those suffering psychic/health deprivation
• Cults based on organisation:
  =Audience cults:
  Least organised / no formal membership / little interaction between members
  =Client cults:
  Consultant/client relationship with therapies promising personal fulfilment
  =Cultic movements:
  More organised, exclusivist, requiring high levels of commitment, claiming to meet all members’ religious needs

Question 66

Organisations, Movements and Members- Explaining growth of religious movements- Marginality

Answer 66

• Weber=sects appeal to disprivileged groups who are marginal to society
  =sects offer a solution to lack of status by offering theodicy of disprivilege- religious explanation of disadvantage
  =many sects and millenarian movements recruited from marginalised poor

Question 67

Organisations, Movements and Members- Explaining growth of religious movements- Relative Deprivation

Answer 67

• Someone who is quite privileged feeing deprived compared to others
  =people turn to sects for sense of community
  =Stark+Bainbridge argue it is the relatively deprived who break away from churches to form sects

Question 68

Organisations, Movements and Members- Explaining Growth of Religious Movements- Social Change and NRM’s

Answer 68

• Wilson=periods of rapid change undermine established norms, producing anomie- those most affected turn to sects / NRM’s
• World-rejecting NRM’s=attractive as offered more idealistic way of life
• World-affirming=provide sense of identity and techniques promising worldly success in modernity

Question 69

Organisations, Movements and Members- Explaining Growth of Religious Movements- Dynamics of Sects and NRM’s

Answer 69

• Denomination or death- Niebuhr:
  Sects=world rejecting by splitting established church- either die out or compromise with world, abandoning extreme ideas to become denomination
• Sectarian cycle- Stark+Bainbridge:
  Schism / initial fervour / denominationalism / establishment / further schism
• Established sects- Wilson:
  Not all sects follow pattern
  =Conversionist sects=convert large number people- grow rapidly into larger denominations
  =Adventist sects=separate from corrupt world, prevents compromise and becoming denomination
  =Established sects=some sects survive for many generations

Question 70

Organisations, Movements and Members- Explaining Growth of Religious Movements- Growth of New Age

Answer 70

• Heelas=audience/client cults extremely diverse and have commonalities with New Age
  =self-spirituality=turn away from traditional churches and look inside themselves to find it
  =de-traditionalisation=rejects spiritual authority of traditional sources and values personal experience

Question 71

Organisations, Movements and Members- Explaining Growth of Religious Movements- Postmodernity and New Age

Answer 71

• Drane=New Age appeal due to shift towards postmodern society- lost faith in experts and disillusioned with churches failure to meet spiritual needs
• New age and Postmodernity:
  Bruce=due to latest phase of modern society, not postmodern
  =modern society values individualism important among those in expressive professions
  =New Age eclecticism typical of lat me modern society reflecting consumerism
• Heelas=New Age and modernity linked in four ways:
  =source of identity- fragmented identity with New Age offering authentic one
  =consumer culture- New Age offers alternative way to achieve perfection
  =rapid social change- New Age provides sense of certainty and truth
  =decline of organised religion- larvae’s way open to New Age as alternative

Question 72

Organisations, Movements and Members- Religiosity and Social Groups- Gender and Religiosity

Answer 72

• More men than women are religious, but more women are churchgoers
  Bruce=twice as many women involved in sects
• Socialisation and gender role:
  Miller+Hoffman=women more religious as socialised to be more passive, obedient and caring
  Davie=closer proximity to birth and death brings closer to ultimate questions
• Paid work:
  Bruce=greater religiosity result of lesser involvement in paid work which is secularised
• Women and New Age:
  Bruce=child-rearing makes them less aggressive and more cooperative for New Age
  Brown=they appeal to women’s wish for autonomy
• Compensation for deprivation:
  Glock+Stark=deprivation more common among women
  =organismic deprivation- likely to suffer ill health and seek healing
  =ethical deprivation- morally conservative attracted to conservatism of some sects
  =social deprivation- women more poor

Question 73

Organisations, Movements and Members- Religiosity and Social Groups- Pentecostal Gender Paradox

Answer 73

• Pentecostalism grown rapidly, particularly among poor in Latin America- proved attractive to women
• Brusco=as demands followers adopt ascetic lifestyle and traditional division of labour- use ideas to combat culture of machismo
  Men pressured by church to change ways, act responsible and support families

Question 74

Organisations, Movements and Members- Religiosity and Social Groups- Ethnicity and Religiosity

Answer 74

• Higher than average rates for most minority groups:
  =country of origin- higher levels religious practice and maintain pattern in uk
  =cultural defence- offers cultural identity in hostile environment, can preserve culture and cope with oppression in racist society
  =cultural transition- easing transition into new culture but providing support communities in new environment

Question 75

Organisations, Movements and Members- Religiosity and Social Groups- Age and Religious Participation

Answer 75

• Older person is, more likely attend religious services:
  =ageing effect- as approach death, more concerned afterlife and so go church
  =period effect- born in earlier period more likely religious because of events lived through
  =secularisation- as religion declines, generations become less religious than previous
  Voas+Crockett=main reason younger people less religious older people

Question 76

Ideology and Science- Science as Belief System- Science as Open Belief System

Answer 76

• Popper=science open system as open to criticism and testing
  =based on falsificationism- cannot be classed scientific if cannot prove wrong
  =scientific knowledge not absolute truth
• Cudos norms=promote growth of knowledge by encouraging openness:
  =Communism- knowledge shared with scientific community
  =Universalism- scientific knowledge judged by universal, objective criteria
  =Disinterestedness- seeking knowledge for its own sake
  =Organised Scepticism- every theory open to criticism and testing

Question 77

Ideology and Science- Science as Belief System- Closed Belief Systems

Answer 77

• Horton=science as open system, religion as closed system- making knowledge claims that cannot be overturned
  =closed belief systems have get out clauses that prevent disapproval in eyes of believers
  =Polanyi=three devices sustain themselves in face contradictory evidence: Circularity / Subsidiary explanations / Denying legitimacy to rival beliefs

Question 78

Ideology and Science- Science as Belief System- Science as Closed Belief System

Answer 78

• Kuhn=science based on paradigm (set of shared assumptions)
  =tells scientists what reality is like, defining problems, methods and findings
  =scientists engage in normal science in paradigm
  =scientists who challenge paradigm are ridiculed- expect during scientific revolutions when accumulated evidence undermines existing paradigm

Question 79

Ideology and Science- Science as Belief System- Sociology of Scientific Knowledge

Answer 79

• Interpretivists argue scientific knowledge is socially constructed
  =Knorr-Cetina=what scientists study in lab is highly constructed and far removed from natural world they are supposedly studying
  =Woolgar=scientists have to persuade community to accept interpretations of world- scientific fact shared, socially constructed belief

Question 80

Ideology and Science- Science as Belief System- Marxism, Feminism and Postmodernism

Answer 80

• Marxism and feminism=science serves interests of dominant groups- ruling class and men
  Scientific developments driven by capitalism’s need for knowledge to make profit
• Postmodernists reject science’s claims to have truth- science has become tecnhoscience, serving capitalist interests by producing commodities for profit

Question 81

Ideology and Science- Ideology- Marxism and Ideology

Answer 81

• Capitalists exploit workers labour to produce profit
• Workers interest to overthrow capitalism by revolution and create classless communist society- cannot occur until aware of exploitation=class consciousness
• Ruling class ideology (hegemony) prevents class consciousness by legitimating capitalism
• Gramsci=W/C will overthrow capitalism due to party of class conscious organic intellectuals

Question 82

Ideology and Science- Ideology- Nationalism

Answer 82

• Nationalism=important political ideology- nations are real communities each with own unique characteristics
  Anderson=nation only an imagined community but nationalism binds strangers together and created common purpose
• Marxists=nationalism is false consciousness preventing overthrow capitalism by dividing W/C
• Functionalists=nationalism is secular civil religion integrating everyone into single community, regardless of differences
• Gellner=nationalism is feature of modernity- uses education to impose single standard making communication and economic cooperation between strangers possible
  Elites use nationalism as ideology to motivate population to endure hardships accompanying industrialisation

Question 83

Ideology and Science- Ideology- Feminism and Ideology

Answer 83

• Gender inequality legitimated by patriarchal ideology
• Religious beliefs and practices define women as inferior