Beliefs In Society Flashcards

Question

Religion And Social Change- Religion And Social Protest- American Civil Rights Movement

Answer 1

- Bruce-American civil rights movement=religiously motivated social change - Led by Martin Luther King, gave support and moral legitimacy to civil rights activists - Black clergy shamed white people into changing the law by appealing to their shared Christian values of equality - religion is an ideological resource- providing beliefs and practices to draw motivation/support - taking moral high ground / channelling dissent / acting as honest broker / mobilising public opinion

Answer 2

- politically/morally conservative, protestant fundamentalist movement - aim=take America back to God- abortion, homosxeulatiy, gar marriage and divorce illegal traditional family and traditional gender roles - effective use of media and networking - unsuccessful as (Bruce): campaigners difficulty cooperating with other religious groups, even on same issue lacks widespread support and strong opposition- overly negative

Answer 3

- Religion=relative autonomy- partly independent of economic base=dual character for religion as force for change and stability - Marx=heart of heartless world and soul of soulless conditions - Engels=religion inhibits change by disguising inequality and challenges status quo while encouraging social change - Bloch=principle of hope=dreams of better life that contains images of utopia religious beliefs=vision of better world and if combined with politics=social change

Answer 4

- strong commitment to poor and opposition to military dictatorships of the time - factors leading liberation theology: deepening rural poverty and growth urban slums human rights abuses following military takeovers growing commitment of priests to support poor and oppose violation human rights - set out to change society- priests=authoritative figures who established support groups lost influence since resembled Marxism - Casanova=important part resisting state terror/bringing about democracy

Answer 5

- Liberation Theology=option for poor- community consciousness -raising and campaigning social change 'revolutionary priests and nuns in jeans and sandals' - radical solution to poverty- collective improvement through political action in public sphere - Pentecostalism=option of the poor- individuals pull selves out of poverty through own efforts - conservative solution to poverty=self-improvement through private sphere of family and church church pastors 'uniformly respectable in their suits'

Answer 6

- Millenarian movements=referring to idea Christ come into world for second time and rule a thousand years before day of judgement and end of world - Worsley=total and imminent transformation of world by supernatural means Heaven on earth Group will be saved - Appeal to the poor as promise immediate improvement - Worsley=cargo cults- deprived when cargo meant for them diverted to colonists for themselves Unjust social order would be overturned

Answer 7

- Gramsci- Hegemony(ideological domination)=way that ruling class use ideas such as religion to maintain control Ruling class rely on popular consent to rule so less need for coercion - Counter-hegemony=when W/C develop alternative vision of how society should be organised - Religion=dual character=challenge and support ruling class Popular forms of religion=workers see through W/C hegemony by offering vision of fairer world - Organic intellectuals=educators, organisers and leader- help workers see situation in and support W/C organisations

Answer 8

- Billings=applies Gramsci’s ideas- differences in levels of militancy understood in terms of hegemony and role of religion - Leadership=miners benefitted from leadership of organic intellectuals, helping to convert them to union cause Textile workers lacked leadership - Organisation=miners used churches to hold meetings and organise Textile workers lacked such spaces - Support=churches kept miners morale high Textile workers met with opposition from local church leaders

Answer 9

- Secularisation=process whereby religious beliefs, practices and institutions lose social significance - 4% adult population attend church on Sundays - Church weddings and baptisms in decline too - Religious affiliation=membership or identification with religion Continuing decline - Religious belief declining - Churches influence on public life declined significantly State taken over functions church used to have

Answer 10

- Rationalisation=process by which rational ways of thinking and acting have replaced religious ones - Weber=Protestant reformation (MLK) started rationalisation for west - Medieval Catholic worldview=world was enchanted garden Protestant reformation worldview=God as transcendent- existing above and beyond this world - Events no longer explained as work of supernatural but work of natural forces as world ran according to own principles after creator played no further part Rationality was needed to understand - Protestant reformation=disenchantment of world - Bruce=technological worldview- looking for scientific/technological explanations to explain why things happen

Answer 11

- Parsons=structural differentiation- separate, specialised institutions develop to carry out functions previously performed by single institution - Disengagement=religions functions transferred to other institutions and becomes disconnected from wider society - Privatisation=Bruce- religion become confined to private sphere of home and family

Answer 12

- Decline of community=Wilson=due to move from pre-industrial to industrial society When religion lost basis lost vitality and hold over individuals - Industrialisation=Bruce=undermining consensus of religious beliefs that hold communities together - Diversity of occupations, cultures and lifestyles undermine religion=Bruce=plausibility of beliefs undermined by alternatives

Answer 13

- Aldridge: Religion=source of identity on global scale Some religious communities=imagined communities that interact through media Pentecostal groups flourish in impersonal areas

Answer 14

- Religious diversity=Berger= multiple religious organisations and interpretations of faith - Sacred canopy=everyone lived with shared set of beliefs in European Catholic church =beliefs greater plausibility as no challengers =religious diversity=no church can claim monopoly of truth =religious diversity=plurality of life worlds - Plausibility structure=religious diversity undermines these reasons why people find it believable

Answer 15

- Internal criticism from Berger=diversity and choice stimulate interest and participation in religion - Beckford=agrees religious diversity leads some to question/abandon religious beliefs

Answer 16

- Bruce=counter-trends that oppose secularisation theory - Cultural defence= religion provides focal point for defence of national, ethnic, local or group identity in struggle against external forces - Cultural transition=religion provides support and sense of community for ethnic groups - Religion survives in such situations only because focus for group identity- most likely to survive where performs functions other than relating people to supernatural

Answer 17

- 45% Americans attend church but more expression of American way of life - Attendance stats an overexaggeration: Hadaway=attendance 83% higher than researchers counted going to church

Answer 18

- Bruce=evidence traditional beliefs and glorifying god declined- religion has become psychologised - American religion remained popular by becoming less religious - Purpose changed from seeking salvation to seeking personal improvement

Answer 19

- Bruce=practical relativism among American Christians- accepting others entitled hold beliefs different to own - Lynd+Lynd=94% churchgoing young people agreed Christianity one true religion - Absolutism eroded- live in society people hold views different to ours, undermining assumption own views absolutely true

Answer 20

- Davie=religion not declining but taking more privatised form - Attendance has declined as matter of personal choice rather than obligation - Believing without belonging=hood religious beliefs but don’t go church - Vicarious religion=small minority practice religion on behalf much larger group

Answer 21

- Hervieu-Leger=supports personal choice and believing without belonging - Cultural amnesia=loss of collective memory- lost religion used to be handed down generations - Greater equality undermined church imposing religion from above - Spiritual shoppers=individual consumerism (individualised)- developing own DIY beliefs - Two new religious types emerged: Pilgrims=follow individual path in search self-discovery Converts=join religious groups offer sense belonging- recreates sense community

Answer 22

- Lyon=postmodern society changing nature religion- globalisation, media, consumerism - Relocation of religion=increased movement religious ideas across national boundaries Media=access to ideas and beliefs of religions=disembedded as out of context and moved to different place and time=religion de-institutionalised- detached from their place and adapted for own purposes - Religious consumerism Spiritual shoppers=choosing religious beliefs for individual needs- pick and mix different faiths to make part of identity Lyon=sphere of consumption Loss faith in meta-narratives Dominant organisations lose authority and decline Re-enchantment of the world

Answer 23

- New Age=rejects obligation and obedience to external authority found in transactional religions- emphasising personal development - Individualism=free to decide for yourself what is true

Answer 24

- Spiritual revolution=traditional Christianity giving way to New Age spirituality and therapies - Heelas+Woodhead=Kendal Congregational domain of traditional and evangelical Christian churches Holistic Milieu of spirituality and New Age - Within congregational domain, traditions losing support evangelical churches holding own - Explanation trends: New Age grown due to subjective turn in culture- shift towards exploring inner self Evangelical churches more successful as emphasise subjective aspects In spiritual marketplace winners=appeal to personal experience as only source of meaning and fulfilment

Answer 25

- Bruce=New Age too weak fill gap left by decline of traditional religion: Scale=growth should be on larger scale to fill gap Socialisation=belief system can only survive if passed down next generation Weak commitment=serious commitment to New Age is rare Structural weakness=lacks cohesion as everyone free to believe what wish

Answer 26

- Stark+Bainbridge=criticise secularisation for distorted view of past and future =People are naturally religious and religion meets human needs =People make rational choices based on costs and benefits of religious options - Religion attractive as provides supernatural compensators when real rewards unobtainable - Historical cycle of religious decline, revival and renewal - Competition leads to improvement of quality of religious goods on offer - America vs Europe: USA=strong religion as religion grows/declines due to demand Europe=religious monopoly=lack of choice=decline

Answer 27

- Norris+Inglehart=reject religious market theory as only applies to America - Such variations due to existential security=feeling survival is secure enough that can be take for granted =religion meets need for security- insecure societies=high demand =poor third world countries remain religious - Europe vs America: Western Europe more secular as societies equal and secure with welfare states that reduce insecurity- USA remains religious - Gill+Lundegaarde=more country spends welfare=lower level religious participation

Answer 28

- Authoritative sacred text=every word of bible is literally true with the answer to all life’s questions- biblical prophecies will be fulfilled- intolerant of others - Us and them mentality=separate from rest of world and refuse to compromise - Aggressive reaction to threat to their beliefs - Use of modern technology - Patriarchy - Conspiracy theories

Answer 29

- Arises only when those who hold traditional beliefs feel threatened by modernity - Davie=fundamentalists themselves are products of modernity - Cosmopolitanism=way of thinking that embraces modernity, tolerant, open, reflexive thinking (opposite fundamentalists)- lifestyle is personal choice, pursuit of meaning and self-improvement

Answer 30

- Ignores other ways globalisation and modernity affect religion - Ignores differences in fundamentalisms - Claims fundamentalism reaction against modernity but reinventing tradition is itself modern

Answer 31

- Bruce=main cause is perception by religious traditionalists that globalisation threatens their beliefs and lifestyle=develop rigid rules about belief - Fundamentalism confined to monotheistic religion- believing in one god

Answer 32

- Bruce=different fundamentalist movements have different origins - West=reaction to change within society- trends towards diversity and choice - Third world=reaction to change thrust on society from outside- Western values imposed by foreign capitalism

Answer 33

- Davie=rise of secular fundamentalism due to changes in nature of modern society - First phase of modernity: Enlightenment project=optimistic belief in certainty of progress based on science and human reason Helped to secularise all areas social life, undermining religious certainties - Second phase of modernity: Growing mood of pessimism, uncertainty and insecurity Postmodernism emerged arguing secular enlightenment ideologies were meta-narratives whose belief in progress was unfounded =secular ideologies under attack and in reaction some attracted to anti-religious fundamentalism - Ansell=trends are form of cultural racism that legitimate the exclusion of religious minorities - Davie=both religious and secular movements can become fundamentalist due to greater uncertainties postmodern world

Answer 34

- Huntington=global conflicts have intensified since collapse of communism and are symptoms of wider clash of civilisations =western/Latin America/Confucian/Japanese/Islamic/Hindu/Slavic-orthodox - Religious differences=major source identity- globalisation=contact between civilisations easier=increased likelihood conflicts - Religious differences=us and them relationships, increased competition for power - Real clash of civilisations Issue dividing west from Muslim world not democracy but sexuality- Greta differences in divorce, abortion, gender equality, gay rights Western attitudes more liberal but Muslim more traditional

Answer 35

- Bruce=religion unites community against external threat giving it prominent role in politics- religion symbolises groups identity - Poland: Under communist rule imposed from Soviet Union, Catholic Church=rallying point for opposition - Iran: Western capitalist power long influence, policy of rapid modernisation and westernisation- Islam focus resistance to change

Answer 36

- Globalisation=rapid economic growth in India and rising prosperity to M/C Nanda=role of Hinduism in legitimating rise ultra-nationalism and prosperity M/C - Prosperous M/C=first to adopt secular worldview - Increasing religiosity due to M/C ambivalence about newfound wealth, stemming from tension between new prosperity and traditional Hindu belief in renouncing materialism =resolved by modern holy men and tele-gurus who preach desire not bad but manifestation of divinity =legitimate position M/C and allow adjustment to globalised consumer capitalism =legitimates triumphant version Indian nationalism =Hinduism penetrated public life and secular state

Answer 37

- Berger=Pentecostalism in Latin America acts as functional equivalent to Weber’s Protestant ethic- encouraging capitalism like Calvinism =Pentecostalism demands ascetic way of life emphasising disciple and hard work=prosperity and upwards mobility =necessary to promote economic development and raise society out of poverty - Pentecostalism: global and local: Christianity globalised itself expanding into South America through colonisation with Christianity being imposed Spread and gained following from below Creates new local religious forms, incorporating local beliefs Led to Africanisation of Christianity in Africa rather than total disappearance of indigenous religions

Answer 38

- Church =large, millions of members / few demands on members / bureaucratic hierarchy / claim monopoly of truth / universalistic / conservative / linked to state - Sect =small, exclusive groups / real commitment from members / hostile wider society / recruit from poor and oppressed / charismatic leadership / monopoly of truth

Answer 39

- Denomination =midway between churches and sects / membership less exclusive / accept society’s values / not linked to state / minor restrictions of members / tolerant other religions - Cult =least organised / highly individualistic / small, loose knit groupings / without sharply defined belief system

Answer 40

- World-rejecting NRM’s eg. Branch Davidians =clear notion of god / highly critical outside world / members must break from normal life, live communally and have restricted contact outside world- controls all aspects of lives - World-accommodating NRM’s eg. Neo-Pentecostalists =breakaways existing churches / neither accept nor reject world / religious rather than worldly matters / lead conventional lives - World-affirming NRM’s eg. Scientology =lack conventional features of religion / access to spiritual powers / accept world as it is / promises followers success in their goals / customers rather than members

Answer 41

- Stark+Bainbridge=degree of tension between group and wider society distinguishes between religious organisations = sects=splits in existing organisations breaking away and offering other-worldly benefits to those suffering economic/ethical deprivation =cults=new religious or been imported and offering this-worldly benefits to those suffering psychic/health deprivation - Cults based on organisation: =Audience cults: Least organised / no formal membership / little interaction between members =Client cults: Consultant/client relationship with therapies promising personal fulfilment =Cultic movements: More organised, exclusivist, requiring high levels of commitment, claiming to meet all members’ religious needs

Answer 42

- Weber=sects appeal to disprivileged groups who are marginal to society =sects offer a solution to lack of status by offering theodicy of disprivilege- religious explanation of disadvantage =many sects and millenarian movements recruited from marginalised poor

Answer 43

- Someone who is quite privileged feeing deprived compared to others =people turn to sects for sense of community =Stark+Bainbridge argue it is the relatively deprived who break away from churches to form sects

Answer 44

- Wilson=periods of rapid change undermine established norms, producing anomie- those most affected turn to sects / NRM’s - World-rejecting NRM’s=attractive as offered more idealistic way of life - World-affirming=provide sense of identity and techniques promising worldly success in modernity

Answer 45

- Denomination or death- Niebuhr: Sects=world rejecting by splitting established church- either die out or compromise with world, abandoning extreme ideas to become denomination - Sectarian cycle- Stark+Bainbridge: Schism / initial fervour / denominationalism / establishment / further schism - Established sects- Wilson: Not all sects follow pattern =Conversionist sects=convert large number people- grow rapidly into larger denominations =Adventist sects=separate from corrupt world, prevents compromise and becoming denomination =Established sects=some sects survive for many generations

Answer 46

- Heelas=audience/client cults extremely diverse and have commonalities with New Age =self-spirituality=turn away from traditional churches and look inside themselves to find it =de-traditionalisation=rejects spiritual authority of traditional sources and values personal experience

Answer 47

- Drane=New Age appeal due to shift towards postmodern society- lost faith in experts and disillusioned with churches failure to meet spiritual needs - New age and Postmodernity: Bruce=due to latest phase of modern society, not postmodern =modern society values individualism important among those in expressive professions =New Age eclecticism typical of lat me modern society reflecting consumerism - Heelas=New Age and modernity linked in four ways: =source of identity- fragmented identity with New Age offering authentic one =consumer culture- New Age offers alternative way to achieve perfection =rapid social change- New Age provides sense of certainty and truth =decline of organised religion- larvae’s way open to New Age as alternative

Answer 48

- More men than women are religious, but more women are churchgoers Bruce=twice as many women involved in sects - Socialisation and gender role: Miller+Hoffman=women more religious as socialised to be more passive, obedient and caring Davie=closer proximity to birth and death brings closer to ultimate questions - Paid work: Bruce=greater religiosity result of lesser involvement in paid work which is secularised - Women and New Age: Bruce=child-rearing makes them less aggressive and more cooperative for New Age Brown=they appeal to women’s wish for autonomy - Compensation for deprivation: Glock+Stark=deprivation more common among women =organismic deprivation- likely to suffer ill health and seek healing =ethical deprivation- morally conservative attracted to conservatism of some sects =social deprivation- women more poor

Answer 49

- Pentecostalism grown rapidly, particularly among poor in Latin America- proved attractive to women - Brusco=as demands followers adopt ascetic lifestyle and traditional division of labour- use ideas to combat culture of machismo Men pressured by church to change ways, act responsible and support families

Answer 50

- Higher than average rates for most minority groups: =country of origin- higher levels religious practice and maintain pattern in uk =cultural defence- offers cultural identity in hostile environment, can preserve culture and cope with oppression in racist society =cultural transition- easing transition into new culture but providing support communities in new environment

Answer 51

- Older person is, more likely attend religious services: =ageing effect- as approach death, more concerned afterlife and so go church =period effect- born in earlier period more likely religious because of events lived through =secularisation- as religion declines, generations become less religious than previous Voas+Crockett=main reason younger people less religious older people

Answer 52

- Popper=science open system as open to criticism and testing =based on falsificationism- cannot be classed scientific if cannot prove wrong =scientific knowledge not absolute truth - Cudos norms=promote growth of knowledge by encouraging openness: =Communism- knowledge shared with scientific community =Universalism- scientific knowledge judged by universal, objective criteria =Disinterestedness- seeking knowledge for its own sake =Organised Scepticism- every theory open to criticism and testing

Answer 53

- Horton=science as open system, religion as closed system- making knowledge claims that cannot be overturned =closed belief systems have get out clauses that prevent disapproval in eyes of believers =Polanyi=three devices sustain themselves in face contradictory evidence: Circularity / Subsidiary explanations / Denying legitimacy to rival beliefs

Answer 54

- Kuhn=science based on paradigm (set of shared assumptions) =tells scientists what reality is like, defining problems, methods and findings =scientists engage in normal science in paradigm =scientists who challenge paradigm are ridiculed- expect during scientific revolutions when accumulated evidence undermines existing paradigm

Answer 55

- Interpretivists argue scientific knowledge is socially constructed =Knorr-Cetina=what scientists study in lab is highly constructed and far removed from natural world they are supposedly studying =Woolgar=scientists have to persuade community to accept interpretations of world- scientific fact shared, socially constructed belief

Answer 56

- Marxism and feminism=science serves interests of dominant groups- ruling class and men Scientific developments driven by capitalism’s need for knowledge to make profit - Postmodernists reject science’s claims to have truth- science has become tecnhoscience, serving capitalist interests by producing commodities for profit

Answer 57

- Capitalists exploit workers labour to produce profit - Workers interest to overthrow capitalism by revolution and create classless communist society- cannot occur until aware of exploitation=class consciousness - Ruling class ideology (hegemony) prevents class consciousness by legitimating capitalism - Gramsci=W/C will overthrow capitalism due to party of class conscious organic intellectuals

Answer 58

- Nationalism=important political ideology- nations are real communities each with own unique characteristics Anderson=nation only an imagined community but nationalism binds strangers together and created common purpose - Marxists=nationalism is false consciousness preventing overthrow capitalism by dividing W/C - Functionalists=nationalism is secular civil religion integrating everyone into single community, regardless of differences - Gellner=nationalism is feature of modernity- uses education to impose single standard making communication and economic cooperation between strangers possible Elites use nationalism as ideology to motivate population to endure hardships accompanying industrialisation

Answer 59

- Gender inequality legitimated by patriarchal ideology - Religious beliefs and practices define women as inferior