Crime And Deviance

Question 1

Functionalist, Strain and Subcultural Theories- Durkheim’s Functionalist Theory- Inevitability of Crime

Answer 1

• Too much crime is destabilising society but it is inevitable and universal- every society has some level of crime and deviance
• Why found in all societies:
  =not everyone is equally effectively socialised into the shared norms and values
  =there is diversity of lifestyles and values- different groups develop their own subcultures
• Modern societies tend towards anomie (normlessness)- the rules governing behaviour become weaker and less clear-cut=weakened shared collective conscience resulting in higher levels deviance

Question 2

Functionalist, Strain and Subcultural Theories- Durkheim’s Functionalist Theory- Positive Functions of Crime

Answer 2

• Boundary maintenance=crime reaffirms society’s shared rules and reinforces social solidarity- reinstating values of law abiding majority and discouraging rule breaking
• Adaptation and change=there must be some scope for people to challenge existing norms and values- society will not be able to change if people are suppressed
  =too much crime threatens to tear the bonds of society apart
  =too little crime means society is controlling its members too much which prevents change
• Safety valve=crime and deviance occurs on a low-level to avoid harsher crimes being committed which could threaten society
• Warning sign=crime indicates an institution is not working as it should and that change should take place to sort this

Question 3

Functionalist, Strain and Subcultural Theories- Durkheim’s Functionalist Theory- Criticisms

Answer 3

• Ignores how deviance affects different groups or individuals within society
• Crime doesn’t always promote solidarity
• Does not elaborate on how much deviance is required for society to function successfully

Question 4

Functionalist, Strain and Subcultural Theories- Merton’s Strain Theory- American Dream

Answer 4

• Merton’s explanations:
  =structural factors- society’s unequal opportunity structure
  =cultural factors- strong emphasis on success goals and weaker emphasis on legitimate means to achieve them
• Deviance is the result of strain between:
  =the goals that a culture encourages individuals to achieve
  =what the institutional structure of society allows them to achieve legitimately
• The American dream=meritocratic society where anyone who makes the effort can get ahead- in reality, many opportunities are blocked
  Strain between goal of money success and lacking legitimate opportunities=frustration=pressure to resort to illegitimate means

Question 5

Functionalist, Strain and Subcultural Theories- Merton’s Strain Theory- Deviant Adaptations to Strain

Answer 5

• Conformity:
  Individuals accept culturally approved goals and strive to achieve them legitimately
• Innovation:
  Individuals accept goal of money success but use illegitimate means to achieve it
• Ritualism:
  Individuals give up on trying to achieve the goals, but have internalised the legitimate means, so follow rules for their own sake
• Retreatism:
  Individuals reject both goals and legitimate means and become dropouts
• Rebellion:
  Individuals reject existing society’s goals but replace them with new ones in a desire to bring about change and create a new type of society

Question 6

Functionalist, Strain and Subcultural Theories- Merton’s Strain Theory- Evaluation

Answer 6

• Explains patterns shown in official crime statistics but takes these stats at face value- over representing W/C crime
• Ignores power of ruling class to enforce laws that criminalise poor but not rich
• Assumes there is a value consensus and ignores people may not share this goal
• Only accounts for utilitarian crime for monetary gain
• Ignores role of group deviance

Question 7

Functionalist, Strain and Subcultural Theories- Subcultural Strain Theories- Cohen: Status Frustration

Answer 7

• Criticises Merton’s explanation:
  =sees deviance as individual response to strain ignoring deviance committed in groups
  =focuses on utilitarian crime committed for material gain- ignores crimes with no economic motive
• W/C boys face anomie=culturally deprived=bottom of official status hierarchy=status frustration=reject M/C values and resort to delinquent subculture
• Alternative status hierarchy=inverting values of mainstream society offered to boys in which they can achieve in- creating own illegitimate opportunity structure so can win status from peers through delinquent actions

Question 8

Functionalist, Strain and Subcultural Theories- Subcultural Strain Theories- Cloward and Ohlin: Three Subcultures

Answer 8

• W/C youths denied legitimate opportunities to achieve and form subcultures which turn to violence
  =differences due to unequal access to legitimate opportunity structure and illegitimate opportunity structure
  =difference neighbourhoods provide different illegitimate opportunities to learn skills and develop criminal careers
• Criminal subcultures:
  =apprenticeship into utilitarian crime
  =neighbourhoods where stable criminal subculture and hierarchy of adult crime
  =criminals train youths with right abilities and provide opportunities on criminal career ladder
• Conflict subcultures:
  =areas high population turnover preventing stable criminal network
  =only illegitimate opportunities in gangs
  =violence provides release frustration at blocked opportunities and alternative status hierarchy earned by winning turf from rival gangs
• Retreatist subcultures:
  =double failures both in legitimate and illegitimate opportunity structures
  =illegal drug use

Question 9

Functionalist, Strain and Subcultural Theories- Subcultural Strain Theories- Cloward and Ohlin: Three Subcultures- Evaluation

Answer 9

• Ignore crimes of wealthy, wider power structure and over-predict W/C crime
• Try to explain different types W/C deviance in terms of different subcultures
• Draw boundaries too sharply between different types- actual subcultures fit into all/none
• Reactive=deviant subcultures form in reaction to failure to achieve mainstream goals- wrongly assuming everyone shares these goals in first place

Question 10

Interactionism and Labelling Theory- Social Construction of Crime

Answer 10

• Deviance is a social construct
  Becker=groups create deviance by creating rules and applying them to people labelled and outsiders
  =act/person becomes deviant when labelled as such
• Differential enforcement:
  =social control agencies label veteran groups as criminal
  =Piliavin+Briar=police decisions to arrest based on stereotypical ideas
• Typifications: Cicourel=stereotypes of typical delinquent who are more likely stopped, arrested and charged
  =W/C and ethnic minority juveniles more likely arrested
  =M/C juveniles don’t fit typification, parents can negotiate on behalf less likely charged
• Social construction of crime stats:
  W/C people fit typifications=more policing=more arrests
  =crime stats not valid picture of patterns
  =Cicourel=cannot take at face value or use as a resource- treat as a topic and investigate process of how constructed
  Dark figure=difference between official stats and real rate of crime- victim surveys/self report studies gain more accurate view

Question 11

Interactionism and Labelling Theory- Effects of Labelling

Answer 11

• Lemert=by labelling as deviant, society encourages them to become more deviant
• Primary and secondary deviance:
  Primary=deviant acts not publicly labelled- those who commit don’t see themselves as deviant
  Secondary=results from societal reaction- becomes individuals master status
• Self-fulfilling prophecy:
  Live up to label=secondary deviance
  Further societal reaction=deviant subculture to support them in deviant career
  Young=drug use peripheral to hippies (primary) / police persecute as junkies (secondary) / deviant subculture around drugs (SFP)
• Deviance amplification spiral=controlling deviance leads to more deviance and greater attempts at control etc etc
  Cohen- folk devils of mods and rockers:
  Media exaggeration began moral panic / moral entrepreneurs called for crack down resulting in more arrests and concern / demonising mods and rockers as folk devils marginalised them further=more deviance

Question 12

Interactionism and Labelling Theory- Mental Illness and Suicide

Answer 12

• Douglas: meaning of suicide:
  Rejects official stats (social constructs about labels applied by coroners)- discover deceased’s meanings using qualitative methods
• Atkinson: coroners’ common-sense knowledge:
  Use taken-for-granted assumptions to construct social reality
  Ideas of typical suicide affected verdict
• Mental illness:
  =How person becomes labelled as mentally ill and effects of labelling- person’s negative response gives group reason to fear for their mental health and leads to medial label=master status
  =Goffman=possible effects of institutionalisation
  Mortification of self=old identity killed off and replaced by new inmate one- achieved by degradation rituals

Question 13

Class, Power and Crime- Explaining Class Differences in Crime

Answer 13

• Official stats=W/C more likely offend
• Functionalists=crime product of inadequate socialisation- W/C have independent subculture explaining higher crime
• Strain theory=class structure denies W/C people opportunity to achieve by legitimate means
• Subcultural theories=Cohen=W/C youths are culturally deprived and unable to educationally achieve- status frustration- delinquent subcultures to gain status: criminal, conflict, retreatist
• Labelling theory=reject view official stats valid picture who commits most crime- role of law enforcement agencies power to label W/C as criminals

Question 14

Class, Power and Crime- Marxism, Class and Crime

Answer 14

• Criminogenic capitalism:
  It’s very nature causes crime
  W/C crime=poverty / only way of obtaining consumer goods / alienation causes frustration and aggression
• The state and law making:
  Law making and enforcement serves interests of capitalism
  Chambliss=laws to protect private property basis of capitalist economy
  Ruling class power to prevent new laws harmful to their interests
• Selective enforcement:
  Reiman=crimes of powerful less likely criminal offences
  Higher rate of prosecution crimes of poor
• Ideological functions of crime and law:
  Laws benefit workers and capitalism- false consciousness
  Selective law enforcement=crime W/C problem- encouraging them to blame each other rather than capitalism
  Selective enforcement distorts crime stats

Question 15

Class, Power and Crime- Neo-Marxism: Critical Criminology

Answer 15

• Taylor, Walton+Young=criticise Marxism for determinism
• Voluntarism:
  Crime is conscious choice often with political motive- criminals deliberately struggling to change society
• Fully social theory of deviance:
  Comprehensive theory help to change society for better
  =Marxist ideas about unequal distribution wealth/who has power make and enforce law
  =Labelling theory’s ideas about meaning of deviant act for actor, societal reactions to it and effects of label on individual

Question 16

Class, Power and Crime- Crimes of the Powerful

Answer 16

• Sutherland=white-collar crime=committed by person of respectability and high status in course of occupation
  =occupational crime=committed by employees for personal gain
  =corporate crime=committed for company’s benefit
• Scale of corporate crime=widespread, routine and pervasive: financial crimes/crimes against consumer and employer/crimes against environment
• Abuse of trust:
  White-collar crime greater threat as promotes distrust of institutions and undermines fabric of society
• Invisibility of corporate crime:
  =media give limited coverage
  =lack of political will
  =lack of resources and expertise to investigate effectively
  =de-labelling
  =under-reporting

Question 17

Class, Power and Crime- Explanations of Corporate Crime

Answer 17

• Strain theory:
  Company will employ illegitimate means to achieve goal of maximising profit
  Clinard+Yinger=companies law violations increased as profitability declined
• Differential association:
  If deviant subculture justifies committing crime, employees socialised into criminality
• Labelling theory:
  Companies have power to avoid labelling- inability of enforcement to investigate effectively reduces offences actually labelled
• Marxism:
  Capitalism seeks to maximise profits which causes harm- corporations comply with law only if enforced strictly

Question 18

Realist Theories of Crime- Right Realism

Answer 18

• Offer practical solutions to crime and see it as product of: biological differences, inadequate socialisation, rational choice
• Biological differences:
  Some people innately predisposed to commit crime- aggressive personality/low IQ
• Underclass:
  =Murray=welfare state encourage failure to socialise children properly
  =generous welfare provision=benefit-dependent lone parent families
  =boys lack discipline/role model=delinquent subcultures
• Rational choice theory:
  =committing crime based on choice over cost-benefit analysis
  =perceived costs of crime are low so benefits outweigh=more crime
• Solutions to crime
  =orderly neighbourhoods to avoid crime taking hold
  =zero tolerance policing
  =crime prevention policies reduce rewards of crime and increase costs
• Criticisms:
  =ignores structural causes of crime
  =over-emphasises control of neighbourhoods
  =police only boosted arrest rates for minor deviant acts

Question 19

Realist Theories of Crime- Left Realism

Answer 19

• Takes crime seriously as recognises that main victims are from disadvantaged groups and there’s been a real increase in crime
• Relative deprivation:
  How deprived someone feels in relation to others- resort to crime to obtain what feels entitled to
  =cultural inclusion- poor have access to media’s materialistic messages
  =economic exclusion- of poor from opportunities to gain prizes
• Subculture:
  Criminal subcultures subscribe to society’s materialistic goals- legitimate opportunities blocked- resort to crime
• Marginalisation:
  No organisation to present them/no clear goals- frustration expressed through criminal means
• Late modernity and crime:
  =harsher welfare / job insecurity / poverty
  =crime found throughout society / less consensus on acceptable behaviour / public demand harsher control
• Solutions:
  =Democratic policing: Military policing / local communities involved in policy making / multi-agency approach
  =Reducing inequality: structural changes to tackle discrimination and provide decent jobs
• Criticisms:
  =ignores harms done to poor by powerful
  =over-predicts W/C crime
  =quantitative data not motives
  =focuses on high-crime inner city areas

Question 20

Gender, Crime and Justice- Gender Patterns in Crime

Answer 20

• Men appear to commit more crime but women underestimated in official stats- female crimes less likely reported and prosecuted
• Chivalry thesis=CJS more lenient to women as agents are men who socialised to act chivalrously- protective so less willing to charge
  +women more likely cautioned
  +women less likely jailed for similar cases
  ~male crimes don’t get reported
  ~self-report studies show men commit more crime
• Bias against women=CJS treats women more harshly especially when deviate from norms
  =double standard girls not boys

Question 21

Gender, Crime and Justice- Functionalist Sex Role Theory

Answer 21

• Parsons=gender socialisation and role models nuclear family
  =expressive role / adult role model / boys reject this
  =compensatory compulsory masculinity
  =instrumental role makes socialisation difficult for boys
  =absence male role model boys turn to street gangs as source of identity

Question 22

Gender, Crime and Justice- Heidensohn: Patriarchal Control

Answer 22

• Control at home:
  =domestic role provides restrictions on time and movement and confines to house- no opportunity offend
  =men impose this role on women
  =daughters have bedroom culture and required to do more housework
• Control in public:
  =by fear of male sexual violence
  =by fear of being defined as not respectable
• Control at work:
  =subordinate position reduces criminal opportunity- glass-ceiling

Question 23

Gender, Crime and Justice- Carlen: Class and Gender Deals

Answer 23

• Hirschi’s control theory=humans act rationally and controlled by offering deal / people commit if don’t believe get rewards

=class deal- women who work will get decent standard of living
=gender deal- women who conform to conventional domestic role gain material and emotional rewards of life

• Liberation thesis=as women liberated from patriarchy, offending similar to men’s
  =opportunities more equal and adopted traditional male roles and so commit more male crimes

Question 24

Gender, Crime and Justice- Females and Violent Crime

Answer 24

• Criminalisation of females:
  Female arrests for violence risen but this not matched by victim surveys
  =rise in arrests due to CJS widening the net- prosecuting females for less serious crimes than previously
• Moral panic about girls:
  Drunk and disorderly, out of control and looking for fights according to media
  =affecting sentencing decisions
  =SFP and amplification spiral

Question 25

Gender, Crime and Justice- Gender and Victimisation

Answer 25

• More homicide victims male by friend but female victims more likely to know killer
• Fewer women than men victims of violence
• Mismatch between who has a greater fear and who is most at risk

Question 26

Gender, Crime and Justice- Masculinity and Crime

Answer 26

• Messerschmidt=masculinity is social construct and accomplishment men have to work at presenting
  =hegemonic masculinity- paid labour / subordination of women / uncontrollable sexuality
• White M/C youths=accommodating masculinity in school to achieve M/C status but outside masculinity is oppositional
• White W/C youths=oppositional masculinity in and out of school as less chance success
• Black lower W/C youths=gang membership masculinity as little expectation of job due to racism
• Criticisms:
  =circular argument
  =not all men use crime to accomplish masculinity
  =tries to explain all male crimes with masculinity

Question 27

Gender, Crime and Justice- Winlow: Postmodernity, Masculinity and Crime

Answer 27

• Globalisation=loss traditional manual jobs where masculinity expressed through labour
  Service sector=legal employment, criminal opportunity and express masculinity
• Bodily capital:
  Postmodernity=organised professional criminal subculture
  Develop physical assets to maintain reputation and employability in

Question 28

Ethnicity, Crime and Justice- Alternative Sources Of Statistics

Answer 28

• Victim surveys:
  =ask to identity ethnicity of criminal
  =crime takes place within rather than between ethnic groups
  ~rely on memory of events
  ~only cover personal crimes
  ~exclude crimes by and against organisations
• Self-report studies:
  White, mixed and black commit most offences
  +challenge stereotype black more likely offend
  ~evidence is inconsistent

Question 29

Ethnicity, Crime and Justice- Ethnicity, Racism and the Criminal Justice System

Answer 29

• Policing:
  Mass stop and search / police violence / racism towards minority ethnic communities
• Stop and search:
  Ethnic minorities more likely
  Black=9 times
  Asian=more likely under terrorism act
  =police racism- Macpherson report
  =disproportionality in stop and searches represent ethnic differences in offending
• Arrests and cautions:
  Black=3 times likely
  Black and Asian arrestees=less likely caution
• Prosecution and trial:
  CPS more likely drop cases against EM minorities
• Convictions and sentencing:
  Black and Asian less likely guilty
• Pre-sentence reports:
  Allow for discrimination
• Prison:
  Black=4 times likely white
  Black and Asian more likely longer sentences

Question 30

Ethnicity, Crime and Justice- Left Realism

Answer 30

• Lee+Young=ethnic differences reflect real differences in levels of offending
  =racism led to marginalisation / emphasis on consumerism leads to relative deprivation / form subcultures which produce crime
• Cannot explain differences via police racism as would have to be selective against blacks for it to cause such differences
• Criticisms:
  Asians arrested less than blacks due to different stereotypes

Question 31

Ethnicity, Crime and Justice- Neo-Marxism

Answer 31

• Differences in stats do not reflect reality- outcome of social construction stereotyping EM groups as more criminal
• Gilroy: myth of black criminality
  Created by racist stereotypes / CJS act on these / EM criminalised and over-represented in stats
  =form of political resistance against racist society
  ~romanticises street crime
• Hall: policing the crisis
  Moral panic over black muggers served interests of capitalism- distract from true cause of unemployment

Question 32

Ethnicity, Crime and Justice- Ethnicity and Victimisation

Answer 32

(Brought into greater focus after Macpherson report)
- Victim surveys and police-recorded statistics: racist incidents and racially aggravated offences

• Mixed ethnic backgrounds have highest risk of victimisation
  =young, male, unemployed also linked but stem back to discrimination
  ~long term psychological impact needs to be considered also
• Responses=situational crime prevention measures to organised self-defence campaigns that physically defend neighbourhoods from racist attacks

Question 33

Crime and the Media- Media Representations

Answer 33

• Over-represent violent and sexual crime
• Portray criminals and victims as older and more M/C
• Exaggerates police success
• Exaggerate risk of victimisation
• Overplays extraordinary crimes

Question 34

Crime and the Media- News Values and Crime Coverage

Answer 34

• Distorted news media reflects that news is a social construction
• News values=criteria by which editors decide whether story is newsworthy
  =Immediacy
  =Dramatisation
  =Personalisation
  =Higher-status
  =Simplification
  =Novelty
  =Risk
  =Violence

Question 35

Crime and the Media- Fictional Representations

Answer 35

• Surette=fictional representations of crime follow the law of opposites- opposite to official stats and similar to news coverage
  =property crime underrepresented but violence, drugs and sex crime overrepresented
  =fictional sex crimes committed by strangers not acquaintances
  =fictional cops usually catch their perpetrator

-Recent trends:
=reality shows featuring young, non-white underclass offenders
=tendency to show police as corrupt and brutal
=victims become more central with law enforcers as their avengers and audiences to identify with suffering

Question 36

Crime and the Media- Media as Cause of Crime

Answer 36

=Imitation of deviant role models
=Desensitisation through repeated violent images
=Transmitting knowledge of criminal techniques
=Glamourising offending

Question 37

Crime and the Media- Fear of Crime

Answer 37

• Exaggerates violent crime and risk of certain groups
• Schlesinger+Tumber=tabloid readers and heavy tv users had greater fear going out at night

Question 38

Crime and the Media- Relative Deprivation

Answer 38

• Media represents everyone with images of materialistic life as a goal to which they should strive
  =sense of relative deprivation and social exclusion by marginalised groups who turn to crime to get material goods
• Hayward+Young=late modern society is media-saturated and emphasises consumption- crime turned into a commodity

Question 39

Crime and the Media- Moral Panics

Answer 39

• Moral panic=exaggerated and irrational overreaction by society to a perceived problem
  Result of boundary crisis
• Mods and rockers (Cohen):
  =marginal disagreement between two groups
  =media exaggerated numbers and seriousness of disagreement
  =media predicted further conflict would ensue
  =symbols of mods and rockers were negatively labelled
  =moral entrepreneurs call for crackdown
  =SFP
  =deviance amplification spiral
• Deviance amplification spiral:
  =making it appear the problem was out of hand
  Increased control respond and further stigmatisation
  =defining two groups and emphasising differences
  More people adopted identities

Question 40

Crime and the Media- Perspectives on Moral Panics

Answer 40

• Functionalism:
  =way of responding to anomie created by change
  =media raise collective conscience and reassert social control when central values threatened
• Neo-Marxism:
  =Hall=moral panic of mugging served to distract attention from crisis of capitalism

Question 41

Crime and the Media- Global Cybercrime

Answer 41

• Cybercrime=computer-mediated activities that are illegal or illicit and are conducted through global electronic networks
• Jewkes=internet creates opportunity for conventional crime (fraud) and new crime using new tools (software piracy)
  Wall=cyber-trespass / cyber-deception / cyber-pornography / cyber-violence
• Policing cybercrime=difficult due to sheer scale of internet and globalised nature causes problems for jurisdiction
• Surveillance=provides police and state with greater opportunity and control

Question 42

Globalisation, Green Crime, Human Rights and State Crime- Crime and Globalisation- Global Criminal Economy

Answer 42

• Increasing interconnectedness of crime across national borders
  =trafficking / smuggling / laundering / drugs trade
• Demand has increased so supply needs to too
  =Colombia- drug cultivation=little investment but high prices

Question 43

Globalisation, Green Crime, Human Rights and State Crime- Crime and Globalisation- Global Risk Consciousness

Answer 43

• New insecurities with risk being seen as global
• Fears among populations coming from media which exaggerates dangers=moral panics
• Resulting in intensification of social control at national levels
  =UK toughened border control and have no limit on how long in immigration detention

Question 44

Globalisation, Green Crime, Human Rights and State Crime- Crime and Globalisation- Capitalism

Answer 44

• Globalisation=greater inequality and rising crime by giving free rein to market forces
• Marketisation, deregulation etc. create insecurity, widen inequalities and encourage people to turn to crime
• Creating criminal opportunities linking global trends to capitalist economy changes
• IMF and wold bank dominated by capitalist states that impose views on poorer countries, creating conditions for crime

Question 45

Globalisation, Green Crime, Human Rights and State Crime- Crime and Globalisation- Patterns of Criminal Organisation

Answer 45

• The way crime is organised is linked to economic changes brought about by globalisation
• Glocal crime organisations=international links but rooted in local context- led to changes in patterns of crime now flexible and opportunistic
• McMafia=organisations that emerged in Russia and Eastern Europe following fall of communism- increasing disorder meant wealthy tuned to Mafia to protect assets

Question 46

Globalisation, Green Crime, Human Rights and State Crime- Green Crime- Overview

Answer 46

• Green crime=crime against the environment
• Increase in productivity and technology created manufactured risks (dangers never faced before)- risks to environment are global=late modern society as global risk society

=Traditional criminology:
Not interested in environmental crimes that don’t violate the law
+defined subject matter
~accept official definitions that are manipulated
=Green criminology (Zemiology):
Interested in environmental crimes that involve any harm, even if laws have not been broken
+transgressive as includes new issues
+legal definitions not consistent so this is global

• Anthropocentric=TNC’s and nation-states as human-centred view of environmental harm
• Ecocentric=green criminology as environmental harm hurts humans also

Question 47

Globalisation, Green Crime, Human Rights and State Crime- Green Crime- Types

Answer 47

• Primary=result directly from destruction and degradation of earth’s resources
  =crimes of air pollution
  =crimes of deforestation
  =crimes of species decline and animal abuse
  =crimes of water pollution
• Secondary=grows out of the flouting of rules aimed at preventing or regulating environmental disasters
  =state violence against oppositional groups
  =hazardous waste and organised crime
  =environmental discrimination
• Evaluation green criminology:
  +recognises growing importance of environmental issues and need to address harms and risks
  ~hard to define boundaries of field of study

Question 48

Globalisation, Green Crime, Human Rights and State Crime- State Crime- Overview

Answer 48

• State crime=illegal or deviant activities perpetrated by, or with complicity of, state agencies
  =state’s enormous power gives potential to inflict harm on huge scale
  =the state’s role is to define what is criminal, uphold the law and prosecute offenders
• McLaughlin=four categories of state crime: political / security and police forces / economic / social and cultural
• Case studies:
  =Genocide in Rwanda- two groups racially separated/one came to power/met with conflict from opposition/genocide
  =State-corporate crime- Challenger space shuttle disaster / Deepwater Horizon oil rig disaster
  =War crimes- Illegal wars / crimes committed during war or its aftermath

Question 49

Globalisation, Green Crime, Human Rights and State Crime- State Crime- Defining

Answer 49

• Domestic law:
  Chambliss=state crimes are acts defined as criminal and committed by state officials in pursuit of their jobs as representatives of the state
  ~state can avoid ciminaisin own actions
• Social harms and zemiology:
  Michalowski=state crime includes not just illegal acts but legally permissible acts whose consequences are similar to illegal acts
  +prevents making laws that allow misbehaving
  +single standard applied to different states
• Labelling and societal reaction:
  State crimes are socially constructed so what people regard as it varies overtime and between culture
  +prevents imposing own definition
  ~vague
• Human rights:
  Schwendinger=state crime is violation of basic human rights by state or its agents
  +all states care about human rights image
  ~other violations of acts are not criminal

Question 50

Globalisation, Green Crime, Human Rights and State Crime- State Crime- Explaining

Answer 50

• Authoritarian personality (Adorno):
  People commit crime as affinity for authority and wiling to obey such figures- due to harsh parenting- evident with Nazis
• Crimes of obedience:
  People commit crime as acting as agents for the state and are powerless to disobey- evident with Milgram
  =authorisation
  =routinisation
  =dehumanisation
• Modernity:
  Features that made the Holocaust possible: division of labour / bureaucratisation / instrumental rationality / science and technology

Question 51

Globalisation, Green Crime, Human Rights and State Crime- State Crime- Evaluation

Answer 51

=Not all genocides occur through organised division of labour that allows distancing from killing
=Ideological factors also important

• Culture of denial (Cohen):
  States make greater effort to justify crimes
  Democratic states=deny it happened entirely / if it did happen they will blame something else / even if it is what is assumed, it is justified
  =techniques of neutralisation
  =denial of victim/injury/responsibility
  =appeal to higher loyalty

Question 52

Control, Punishment and Victims- Crime Prevention and Control- Situational Crime Prevention

Answer 52

• Clarke=situational crime prevention is a pre-emptive approach that relies on reducing opportunities for crime
  =directed at specific crimes
  =involve managing/altering immediate environment of crime
  =increasing effort and risks of committing crime and reducing rewards- target-hardening measures and increased surveillance
• Criticism=situational crime prevention does not reduce crime. but displace it
  =spatial- different place
  =temporal- different time
  =target- different victim
  =tactical- different method
  =functional- different type
• Evaluation:
  =does reduce crime but some displacement
  ~focuses on opportunistic petty street crime
  ~rational choice theory
  ~ignores root causes of crime

Question 53

Control, Punishment and Victims- Crime Prevention and Control- Environmental Crime Prevention

Answer 53

• Wilson+Kelling=broken windows that are not dealt with send a signal that no one cares which spirals to decline
• Absence of formal social control and informal means community feels intimidated and powerless
• Solution=crack down on any disorder through environmental improvement strategy and zero tolerance policing

Question 54

Control, Punishment and Victims- Crime Prevention and Control- Social and Community Crime Prevention

Answer 54

• As poverty is a cause, social policies may have crime prevention role
• Perry pre-school project=two year olds an intellectual enrichment programme- fewer arrests in adulthood than control group

Question 55

Control, Punishment and Victims- Surveillance

Answer 55

• Surveillance=observing people to gather data and use it to regulate behaviour
• Foucault: the Panopticon:
  Sovereign power=monarch physical power over bodies and punishment visible spectacle
  Disciplinary power=govern body and mind through surveillance
  =Panopticon- prison design where guards can see prisoners but not other way around=constantly behave as if are being watched
• Synoptic surveillance=increase in top-down surveillance and surveillance from below- everybody watched everybody
• Actuarial justice and risk management:
  Feeley+Simon=actuarial justice as predicting likelihood of people offending
  Risk factors=people risk score- profiles target certain groups
• Labelling and surveillance:
  CCTV target black males=SFP=criminalisation increased

Question 56

Control, Punishment and Victims- Punishment

Answer 56

=deterrence- prevent future crime from fear of punishment
=rehabilitation- reforming offenders so don’t commit again
=incapacitation- removing capacity to re-offend
=retribution- society entitled to take revenge on offender

• Durkheim:
  Punishment=uphold social solidarity and reinforce shared values
  =retributive justice- severe and vengeful punishment as strong collective conscience
  =restitutive justice- repair damage due to interdependence between individuals
• Marxism:
  Punishment=repressive state apparatus defending M/C property
  =punishment reflects economic base
  =imprisonment dominant as time is money
• Trends in punishment:
  =changing role of prisons- now seen as punishment itself / rising population / EM over-represented
  =transcarceration- moving people between different prisons- blurring boundary between CJS and welfare agencies
  =alternatives- community-based controls- net of control over more people

Question 57

Control, Punishment and Victims- Victims of Crime- Positivist Victimology

Answer 57

• Victims=suffered harm through acts or omissions that violate laws of the state
• Miers:
  =aims to identify factors that produce patterns in victimisation
  =focuses on interpersonal crimes of violence
  =aims to identify victims who have contributed to own victimisation
• Victim proneness=social and psychological characteristics of victims that make them different and more vulnerable than non-victims
  =female/elderly/mentally subnormal
• Victim precipitation=victim triggered events leading to their homicide
• Evaluation:
  +Wolfgang shows importance of victim-offender relationship
  ~ignores wider structural factors
  ~victim-blaming

Question 58

Control, Punishment and Victims- Victims of Crime- Critical Victimology

Answer 58

• Critical victimology:
  =structural factors place powerless groups at greater risk of victimisation
  =state’s power to apply/deny label of victim is social construct- applied to some but withheld from others
• Safety crimes are explained as fault of accident prone workers- denice ‘victim status’ and blames them for it
• Ideological function of de-labelling as hides crimes of powerful
• Evaluation:
  ~disregards role victim plays in bringing about own victimisation
  +valuable in drawing attention to social construction

Question 59

Control, Punishment and Victims- Victims of Crime- Patterns of Victimisation

Answer 59

• Class:
  Poorest groups are victimised
  =crime rates highest in areas unemployment
• Age:
  Younger groups are victimised
  =teenagers more vulnerable to abuse
• Ethnicity:
  Ethnic minorities are victimised
  =more likely under-protected yet over-controlled
• Gender:
  Males victimised violent attacks
  Women victimised sexual violence
  =70% homicide victims are male
• Repeat victimisation:
  If you have been a victim once, you are likely to be one again
  =4% population victims of 44% crimes

Question 60

Control, Punishment and Victims- Victims of Crime- Impact of Victimisation

Answer 60

• Serious physical and emotional impacts
  =disrupted sleep / helplessness / increased security-consciousness
• Impact indirect victims
  =witnesses to sniper attacks have grief-related dreams
• Secondary victimisation=further victimisation at hands of CJS
  =rape victims so poorly treated- double violation
• Fear of victimisation:
  =women more afraid going out for fear of attack but young men main victims of strangers