Theory Flashcards

Question

Difference feminism- view

Answer 1

-all other types see women as if they were all the same -women = different lives + different needs e.g. women in developing countries where she can be legally abused by husband has different goals to women in developing countries

Answer 2

-discourses (ways of seeing/speaking/thinking) cause oppression —e.g. medical discourse = natural process of childbirth- power transferred to doctors- doctors use power/knowledge not to listen to the women who are just ‘patients’ -critical of way white, western, m/c women have taken over feminism + way they present ‘universal’ of womanhood

Answer 3

-recognises diversity amongst women- forgotten by other strands -ignores similarities of many women -makes changes extremely difficult- divides women into infinite subgroups (weakens movement) -oppression isn’t only result of discourse- result of real inequality- should continue to focus on struggle for equality of wealth + income

Answer 4

Weakened by fact there’s many strands of feminism -> doesn’t show consistency + weakens the argument

Answer 5

micro approach- focus on individuals + way they interact emphasise role of active individual + interactions in shaping personal identity + therefore wider society Main features: -society + social structures/institutions = socially constructed -people have free will to do things/form their own identities -prefer to research on small groups of individuals (micro) -people’s behaviour driven by beliefs/meanings/emotions given to a situation

Answer 6

-sociologists should use empathy (verstehen) to understand human action + not to judge people -human behaviour can only be understood if you know level of cause + meaning 4 types of action: -instrumentally rational = calculates most efficient means of achieving goal -value rational = towards goal that’s desirable for one’s own sake -traditional = customs, habitual actions- often automatic -affectual = expresses emotion Level of cause = (objective) structural factors that shape people’s behaviour Level of meaning = (subjective) meaning that the individual attaches to their action e.g. football hooliganism: —level of cause = being w/c, being male, team you support —level of meaning = emotional reasons- like being violent/harmful/troublesome, people know you’re a hooligan

Answer 7

-argue he’s too individualistic + fails to explain how meaning is shared between people in society —Schutz = too individualistic + can’t explain shared nature of meaning -4 types of action are too difficult to apply- actions can overlap the types -advocated for empathetic understanding but we can’t be sure that we have understand someone’s motives

Answer 8

Thomas- labelling theory: -if we believe a label to be true, this belief will affect the way we act -defining a situation as real will have real consequences The looking glass self: -Cooley = how we develop self-concept arises out of ability to take role of the other- we see ourselves how they see us (SFP) ->used to understand labelling —e.g. psychiatrist defines someone as mentally ill causes people to respond differently -definition becomes true even if it was false + now has consequences Career: -Becker + Lemert = extended career to marijuana smokers etc- if individual has career from pre-patient -> labelling -> in-patient -> discharge —mental patient becomes master status Accused of determinism but does emphasise free will + choice

Answer 9

-roles we play = loosely scripted + have freedom/choice in when/how we play them -labelling sees people as passive victims but Goffman believes people use ‘presentation of self’ + ‘impression management’ to control how we come across as well as roles we play -life = like stage -> roles are most apparent when there’s an audience -people interpret roles differently- process of ‘self presentation’

Answer 10

-we give meaning to things- gain this through taking the role of the other -children = through seeing ourselves through eyes of parents etc -get older = see ourselves from anybody + everybody else- the generalised other —helps us to function as members of society

Answer 11

= waste of time —believes in structuration- one can’t exist without the other —> e.g. language- follows set rules but how we use it can change its structure- e.g. giving words new meanings -structure reproduced through rules (norms/customs/laws) + resources (economic + power over others) -> generally is reproduced -need for ‘ontological security’ = world really is as it appears to be- esp that it is orderly/stable/predictable- encourages action to maintain existing structures -‘reflexively monitor’ actions = reflect on actions + results -> can deliberately choose new course of action, e.g. women choosing not to have children —actions may have unintended consequences

Answer 12

-largely avoids determinism- recognises people create through choices + meanings -loose collection of descriptive concepts -focus on face to face interactions- ignores wider social structures -doesn’t explain origin of labels + why there’s patterns in behaviour -dramaturgical analogy has limitations, e.g. interactions often improvised/unrehearsed

Answer 13

began in late 28th century in W.Europe -Nation State = countries esp important in this period as were powerful/dif from each other -Capitalism = economies changed- industrialisation led to increased wealth for owners of means of production -Rationality + Science = enlightenment period- religion < important, science replaced as provider of truth -Individualism = > freedom to choose their course in life

Answer 14

- > interconnectedness - new tech, better/> accessible travel, global economy -started in 1980s- invention of internet = major driving force -economy now becoming electronic + constantly active has changed way world is

Answer 15

-truth is subjective -scientific knowledge = no longer the truth- can’t be used for making society better -science = 1 of many truths- e.g. someone believe Earth is flat, equally as right as someone who says its round -metanarratives = don’t provide truth so also can’t improve society -endless stream of images/info has made culture fragmented + unstable -has changed our identity = now choose who we are through lifestyle choices- change what we consume to change who we are

Answer 16

-previous societies based on production of material goods -postmodern = based on buying/selling knowledge in form of images + signs (have no relation to physical reality- people can’t distinguish between image + reality) e.g. buy magazine with story on what’ll happen in Eastenders

Answer 17

-some important points about society -some say rejection of meta-narrative is valuable -grand theories have been used to solve many problems -people can tell differences between what’s real + what isn’t -assuming all beliefs are true can be dangerous + offensive -> e.g. are people entitled to think that ‘black people are genetically inferior’

Answer 18

-since globalisation, we’re in new phase of modernity -certain elements intensified e.g. capitalism -enlightenment project is still continuing- science = still providing the truth Giddens: 1) Disembedding = social relations being lifted out of local contexts of interactions- geographical barriers have broken down (no need for face to face contact) 2) Reflexivity = tradition + culture no longer guide to how we behave e.g. sons no longer follow in father’s footsteps -reevaluate actions in life of new info -culture = increasingly unstable Giddens- risk: -late modernity = high consequence risk- major threats to society, e.g. environmental risks, instability of capitalist economy -> manufactured, human made risks -but rejects postmodernist view = we can make rational plans to reduce risk + achieve progress

Answer 19

-late modernity has been made by humans in a way that means we’re all exposed to huge risks -> risk society -science can provide us with plans to reduce risks + protect us from them

Answer 20

-society = new dangers -> now dangers = manufactured risks -late modernity = period of increased individualisation- think for ourselves + reflect on consequences- take account of risks -risk consciousness = increasingly central to culture- to avoid risk- but media gives distorted view if risks -believes in ability to use rationality to overcome risks- evaluate rationality + take political action to decrease them e.g. movements like environmentalism

Answer 21

-believe we have moved from modernity to postmodernity- new phase of capitalism to make profits -all aspects of lives = now commodified —e.g. fashion = fast fashion/online shopping/social media —e.g. music = concert prices/spotify premium —e.g. sport = multiple streaming platforms/ticket prices -capitalism has never been more embedded in society than it is now

Answer 22

-uses empiricism = knowledge gained from actually experiencing/observing something -uses objectivity = research doesn’t involve opinions or bias/prejudice -test relationships between values —theories/laws tested over by replication- become accepted as scientific knowledge

Answer 23

-its possible to discover the laws that control + shape the behaviour of people in society -science isn’t there to tell us why something came into being -science isn’t there to explain how things relate using laws -main task of sociology is discover general laws of social development —laws of co-existence- relationships between parts of society —laws of succession- laws that govern social change

Answer 24

-reasoning about something that involves moving from a set of specific facts to a general conclusion -uses premises from objects that have been examined = experiments that have conducted to establish a conclusion about an object that has not been examined

Answer 25

-Sociology should study social facts as things to observe + measure -believes if a highly individual act had social causes would establish sociology’s status as a scientific discipline;one -observed patterns in suicide rate using quantitative official stats (e.g. Protestants higher than Catholics)- social facts not products of individuals- must have been caused by other social facts -social facts responsible = levels of integration + regulation e.g. Catholicism > successful in integrating individuals —discovered a ‘real law’- different levels of integration + regulation produce dif suicide rates —-> demonstrate sociology has social facts + these could be explained scientifically

Answer 26

Deductive: -starts with theory -bombarded with challenges to see if hypothesis stands up to its claims -sociology = not science method Inductive: -starts with theory -theory finds loads of evidence to prove itself to be right -sociology = science method

Answer 27

-sociology should study society from perspective of other people- understand how/why things happen -verstehen = requires subjective understanding which draws on opinions -> can’t be a science as science is too objective + doesn’t allow opinion to influence research

Answer 28

-Douglas = rejects that social facts determine behaviour- individuals act on the basis of meanings —official stats = social constructions from way coroners label deaths- should use qualitative data from case studies of suicide to reveal meanings + give idea of real rate of suicide -Atkinson = rejects social facts determine behaviour + agrees stats = socially constructed —but thinks we can never know real rate of suicide- can’t know what’s meanings the deceased had - study way living make sense of deaths- procedures coroners had

Answer 29

Postmodernists -argue against- science = metanarrative —scientific approach is dangerous as excludes other points of view (acts as domination)- doesn’t have special access to the truth Feminists -poststructuralist feminists = quest for single, scientific feminist theory = form of domination -> excludes groups of women —quantitative methods = can’t capture reality of women’s experiences- they are oppressive

Answer 30

-sits on fence- not simply an accumulation of knowledge that ends up as credible academic body (science)- went through series of paradigm shifts/revolutions -idea = correct + important- every scientific truth has always been disproven- everything we know now may be wrong- science is not objective —sociology = like pre-science stage- lots of competing theories/perspectives -> still need to find underlying theory

Answer 31

-subject themselves to process of falsification -rejects Marxism as pseudo-science- its concepts -> too abstract to be seen + measured -most sociology = unscientific- consists of theories which can’t be put to testy with possibility of being falsified —but can produce hypotheses which are in principle falsifiable The fallacy of induction -rejects inductive reasoning + verificationism -e.g. observing swans- assume ‘All swans are white’- but can’t prove all are white- can’t prove theory = true by producing > observations to support/verify Falsificationism -scientific statement is one that’s capable of being falsified by evidence -good theory = in principle falsifiable but stands up to all attempts to disprove + is bold/big generalisations (at > risk of being falsified) Truth -never be proof that knowledge is truth- good theory is one that has withstood attempts to falsify it Science thrives in open/liberal societies- instead of societies dominate by an official belief system

Answer 32

-believe sociology can + should be free from values -as study empirical + objective social facts —to remain scientific- remain morally neutral + not judge behaviour Weber: -agrees to extent -research itself can objective + value free -but sociologists always use values in choosing their research topic + concepts- use values as a guide -sociology = value relevant- essential role for values in research- use values to take moral responsibility for harm their research does

Answer 33

-nature of sociology means that values will always influence research —e.g. choosing research/participants, analysing data, operationalising key concepts Becker: -best thing a researcher can do is clearly state all values in research -audience = aware of values + consider impact -values are always present but tend to take views of powerful groups- should take their side —Gouldner criticises = should take side of those fighting back to unmask how the powerful maintain their position

Answer 34

Marxism -> inherently left wing- detest for capitalism + belief in communism, want to reveal truth to the proletariat Feminism -> usually left-leaning, problems with conservative values, but can also be right-leaning New Right -> traditional conservative values + disagree with many progressive left-wing ideas

Answer 35

-believe in relativism (different groups have dif views to what is true- no way of judging whether any view is true) -idea all major theories are based on values/assumptions + therefore not true- no one has special access to truth -but is paradoxical = means postmodernism is also based on values/assumption + also isn’t true —but self-defeating = claims to be telling truth whilst saying nothing is true —there is also a real factual world- e.g. women > housework -> can record these facts + used to judge worth of competing theories

Answer 36

-gov create policies that help society to function- state serves interests of society as a whole -‘piecemeal sociological engineering’ = tackling one issue at a time using policies- to help society run smoothly/efficiently -e.g. policies for equal opportunity in education (e.g. FSM), benefits to workers on low incomes to provide functions of nuclear family -Marxists criticise- issues in wider society need to be tackled before specific issues can be addressed- believe need to change structure of society instead of social policy -too optimistic- there can be negatives of social policy- e.g. beneficial to powerful groups only

Answer 37

-state created welfare state as way of preventing revolution -social policy legitimises the ideological- welfare state gives capitalism a ‘caring face’- should focus on removing capitalism -e.g. health/safety laws to actually benefit capitalism, NHS maintains labour force for further exploitation -Social democrats criticise for saying social policy can’t bring about progressive policies- e.g. poverty researchers have had impact -welfare policies do actually help- esp w/c- not always negative like Marxists view it to be

Answer 38

-gov can use social policy to create laws to reduce inequality- can act as a catalyst for change to improve position for women + bring about gender equality -e.g. 1970 EPA, GIST/WISE programmes in education -fighting for right to vote- suffragettes movement -Rad/Marxists feminists- say approach isn’t radical enough- e.g. needs to be separatism -has had some impact on social policy helping women -but can reject idea that reformist policies will bring large changes- may need to be > revolutionary

Answer 39

-believe state perpetuates women’s subordination through social policy- helps to maintain the patriarchy- social policy benefits men -e.g. introducing refuges for women escaping domestic violence- advocates for separatism -e.g. maternity pay/leave -Liberal feminists argue their approach is too drastic- argue reformist policies can bring change -useful has had some impact on social policy helping women

Answer 40

-gov should have minimal involvement -social policy has encouraged a dependency culture- should only exist to reduce need for them in future —reduction in state spending on welfare -should introduce policies to restore individuals’ responsibility for their own welfare -also agree with marketisation/privatisation policies in education to increase competition -Fun criticise = argue social policies can be useful as help people/society to function- not always negative to give welfare benefits -their research is often biased/lacks evidence- e.g. underclass theory lacks evidence

Answer 41

-believe Western govs can be force for good- work towards > equal society -policies to < inequality are useful- to eradicate social problems -e.g. increased welfare benefits + > public spending to reduce influence of social problems e.g. poverty -similarities to Marxism- but Marxists criticise as argue research can’t bring about progressive policies -positive as believe that sociological research can’t bring lead to progressive social policies + Western govs can use these as a force for good

Answer 42

-state implementing policy is not useful- no such thing as the truth- so state can’t find it —social policies = pointless- aims to fix something which may not exist -support policies for family diversity, e.g. easier divorce policies, same-sex marriage -pro-diversity e.g. 2010 Equality Act -other theories argue social problems = real issues that need to be solves- e.g. feminists believing in gender inequality being real social problem -criticised for not giving solutions to social issues which can be done through social policy -criticised for ignoring the state + influence on social structures -paradox = diversity has only become because of policies