Crime And Deviance Flashcards

Question

Marxism- ideological functions of crime + law

Answer 1

Laws appear to be for WC benefit But having less work-related injuries -> more staff fit -> more money Violations of health/safety laws not rigorously reinforced Media ignores that it’s capitalism making people turn to crime

Answer 2

Strengths: -shows links between law making/enforcement for benefit of capitalist class -offer a solution to crime- replacing capitalist society with a communist one Weaknesses: -over predicts w/c crime -not all capitalist societies have high crime rates e.g. Japan -largely ignores relationship between crime + non-class inequalities e.g. gender, ethnicity

Answer 3

Committed by an individual for their own benefit as opposed to that of the company e.g. small theft, scam Sutherland = financial losses from WCC < important than damage to social relations, destroys trust in institutions + produces social disorganisation

Answer 4

‘Invisible crime’ ‘Victimless’ crime May benefit all involved e.g. bribery Difficult to investigate Lack of awareness

Answer 5

Committed by corporations/businesses Companies committing crimes for gain of the company as opposed to people committing crimes against their company Example = not having correct permits/licences

Answer 6

Boeing 737 Max -installed program (MCAS) to take control/override without pilots knowing -refused to give simulator training for the new plane -caused a plane crash in Indonesia and another one in Ethiopia- following instructions didn’t work -dismissed concerns about safety to make money

Answer 7

1. Media = limited coverage + describes it in sanitised language 2. Lack of political will = politicians focus on street crime not crimes of rich 3. Often complex crime = agencies often understaffed, under resourced + lack expertise -> limited investigation 4. Under-reporting = victim not always identifiable, victims may be unaware/feel powerless 5. De-labelling = often filtered out of criminalisation process

Answer 8

Financial crime, crimes against consumers, crimes against employees, crimes against the environment, state-corporate crime

Answer 9

Box = company can’t achieve goal of maximising profit through legal means- employs illegal ones - may break law when profitability = squeezed Clinard + Yeager = law violations by large companies increase as financial performance decreases

Answer 10

De-labelling = have power to avoid labelling therefore continue doing it due to not being labelled as criminal

Answer 11

Result of normal functioning of capitalism Box = capitalism created ‘mystification’ -> spread ideology that corporate crime is < widespread/harmful Not all corporate crime prosecuted- creates illusion that its an exception Companies comply with the law where they see it enforced strictly

Answer 12

Sutherland = more we’re with people with criminal attitudes, > likely we’re to become deviant - company justifies committing crimes, more employees do it - Geis = workers involved in price-fixing when joining companies where it’s practised Deviant subcultures -> different norms/values - new members of company socialised into become deviant to achieve corporate goals Techniques of neutralisation - Sykes + Matza = people deviate more easily if they can produce justifications

Answer 13

Argues 3 points: 1. Just because someone breaks a rule, doesn’t mean others will define it as deviant 2. Someone has to enforce rules, usually those with a vested interest in the issue 3. If the person successfully labelled, then consequences will follow A deviant is someone to who a label has been applied, deviant behaviour is behaviour that people label as deviant

Answer 14

Decision to punish based on multiple factors e.g. circumstance, background, appearance Decision to arrest based on typifications about offenders - bias by agents of social control Argues justice isn’t fixed but negotiable- m/c < likely to be arrested- instead warned/released because they don’t fit typification - parents can successfully negotiate

Answer 15

Can decide whether to proceed at each stage of CJS - outcome depends on label affected by typifications - stats only tell about activities of police/prosecutors not amount of crime

Answer 16

Primary deviance = deviant acts without publically label, usually trivial, don’t make habit of it, don’t normally think of themselves as deviant Secondary deviance = result of societal reaction, stigmatised + excluded, seen in terms of their label Master status = creates a self-fulfilling prophecy where they live up to the label Deviant career = labelled person shunned, can’t get work, join deviant subculture, confirms deviant identity

Answer 17

Increasing tendency to see young offenders as evil + be < tolerant to minor offences CJS re-labelled status offences e.g. truancy as more serious -> harsher sentences Predicted by Lemert’s theory of secondary deviance

Answer 18

-Focuses on underachievers -Doesn’t look at causes of crime -Marxist- capitalism not mentioned -Deterministic -Emphasis on negative effects -Fails to explain why people commit primary deviance -Implies deviance wouldn’t exist without labelling -Assumes offenders are passive victims

Answer 19

As unequal capitalist but they believe in gradual change instead of a violent overthrow of capitalism

Answer 20

That is a real problem- more people becoming victims- especially disadvantaged groups (shown by victim surveys)

Answer 21

People feel disadvantaged compared to others- people lack things others have Feel its unfair- leads to crime Lea + Young- paradox in todays society- people are better off but media fuels relative deprivation- constant exposure to material goods- people turn to crime

Answer 22

Subculture = collective solution to relative deprivation Criminal subcultures = same values/goals (materialism/consumerism)

Answer 23

Groups on margins of society- no clear goals Feel resentment/frustration- expressed through crime

Answer 24

-Democratic control policing -Multi-agency approach -Tackling the structural causes

Answer 25

Kinsey, Lea + Young: -public must become more involved- have their say in how policing is carried out -police rely on public info but they are losing public support- have to turn to military policing- must improve relationship

Answer 26

-Can’t be left to police alone -Needs to involve other agencies e.g. social services, schools, housing departments

Answer 27

-Crime due to unequal structure of capitalist society -Structural changes are needed e.g. providing decent jobs for all + improving housing

Answer 28

-Crime due to unequal structure of capitalist society -Structural changes are needed e.g. providing decent jobs for all + improving housing

Answer 29

Must look at 4 elements = state, victim, informal controls, offender

Answer 30

-Creation of a ‘bulimic’ society - gorge on media images of consumer lifestyles + circumstances force them to vomit out - frustration/resentment - > relative deprivation, > crime - Lewis et al (2011) = London riots 2011- desire to consume + inability to achieve -> riots as turned to violence - true cause of protests (police violence) got lost

Answer 31

Strengths: -draws upon number of theories -doesn’t glamorise crime like Marxists -takes tackling of crime very seriously -recognises effects for victims Weakness: -ignores other responses to relative deprivation that aren’t crime -neglects gender -doesn’t look at crimes of upper classes -doesn’t explain why most w/c people don’t turn to crime = over-predicts

Answer 32

-biological differences -inadequate socialisation -rational choice theory -opportunities to offend

Answer 33

-Wilson + Hernstein = personality traits e.g. low intelligence, risk taking + aggressiveness -> more crime -Low IQ = low educational achievement -> poorly-paid jobs + crime, don’t think of consequences, vulnerable to exploitation, not forensically aware (> likely to be caught)

Answer 34

-Welfare state -> underclass of welfare dependent, poorly educated lone-parent families -Murray = lone-parent families -> inadequate socialisation -> boys lack role model + paternal discipline -children aren’t socialised to norms/values of society e.g. working hard/job -Charlesworth = members of underclass have low self-esteem -> assert self worth through crime

Answer 35

-weigh up costs + benefits -if low costs -> decide to commit -> worth risk -only works for organised crime

Answer 36

-Cohen + Felton - most crime = opportunistic -crime likely to occur if easy opportunities

Answer 37

-single broken window -> area deteriorates -have to clamp down on first signs of undesirable behaviour- makes people feel secure -zero tolerance policing -reduces opportunity + increases costs of committing crime

Answer 38

New opportunities + new types of crime + increased risk conciousness

Answer 39

-Arms trafficking -nuclear materials trafficking -cyber crimes -terrorism -drug smuggling -money laundering

Answer 40

-Rich west = demands products e.g. drugs -Poor third world countries supply services e.g. Colombia - 20% of population depend on cocaine trade for their livelihood

Answer 41

Many criminals who operate internationally have ‘local’ contacts e.g. criminal entrepreneur living on Costa de Sol have UK distributors in Northern town where he grew up

Answer 42

-organisations emerged since fall of communism in 1989 -corrupt KGB (Russian secret police) officials bought coal, steel + mineral industries at low prices + sold on Western markets, making billions -many ex-KGB now in criminal gangs with global connections

Answer 43

crime against environment e.g. fly tipping, dumping toxic waste

Answer 44

-directly inflicts harm on environment + people because of damage to environment -harm done to species, air, water, ocean, rainforest

Answer 45

carried out by powerful transnational corporations, e.g. oil/chemical companies, work with cooperation of nation states

Answer 46

-society = global risk society -risk = ‘man made’ / ‘manufactured risks’ - can’t predict consequences e.g. global warming

Answer 47

-not interested -crime needs law to be broken -argue no crime against environment been committed- no law saying we can’t

Answer 48

-more radical view -concept of harm rather than law -some of worst environmental harms aren’t illegal -different countries = different laws -can look from a global perspective by moving away from legal definition -recognises importance of environmental issues + need to address harms + risks

Answer 49

-people want to see crime in media so media show it -fictional + non-fictional crime stories have provided significant sources of spectacle + mass entertainment -news full of crime + deviance- info about crime packaged to entertain -Green + Rainer (2012) = increase in news being crime related in recent decades = around 30% on tv

Answer 50

-over represent violent + sexual crime- 45% in media, 3% in stats -portrays victims as middle-class -> stats sow most working-class -exaggerates police success (now people more aware of failings) -exaggerate risk of victimisation -crime reported = series of separate events -overplays extraordinary crime

Answer 51

over = homicide/violence, street crimes, sex crimes under = property, corporate/white collar, state crime

Answer 52

-Mandel (1984) - 1945-1984 = > 10bn crime thrillers sold worldwide -25% prime time tv + 20% films = crime -Surette (1998) - 'law of opposites' = opposite to stats e.g. property crime underepresented, violence, drugs = over, real-life homicides= brawls/disputes, fictional = greed/calculation -however now showing police as < successful + corrupt, victims becoming more central in stories

Answer 53

media disguises reality that offenders/victims mainly from working-class + poor

Answer 54

concealment of significance of white-collar/corporate (e.g. tax evasion) which rarely get reported

Answer 55

Young (1973) - news = social construction social process = some stories accepted, some rejected many stories = over reported 8 news values immediacy, dramatisation, personalisation, higher status, simplification, novelty/unexpectedness, risk, violence

Answer 56

desensitisation knowledge of criminal techniques criminogenic nature of society/strain theory- stimulates desires for unaffordable goods media portray police as incompetent- people believe they'll escape glamourizing offending imitation- provides deviant role models- 'copycat' behaviour

Answer 57

Newburn (2013) = many violent people watch very violent TV, content has no independent effect on behaviour Studies have tried to demonstrate effects of media through imitation tend to be highly artificial

Answer 58

Left realists -media increase relative deprivation in poor + marginalised -even poorest groups = media access, presents materialistic 'good life' -> relative deprivation + social exclusion -> deviant behaviour -media set norm + promote crime

Answer 59

-media turns crime to commodity people desire- encourage to consume crime -Hayward + Young (2012) - late modern society- media-saturated, 'mediascape' - blurring between images + reality of crime (no longer distinct) - media now creates crime itself e.g. gang assault staged + packaged as 'underground fight videos'

Answer 60

-Hayward + Young = crime + its thrills become commodified - use crime to sell products -Fenwick + Hayward (2000) = 'crime is packaged + marketed to young people as romantic, exciting, cool and fashionable cultural symbol' e.g. Netflix crime documentaries + encourage people to watch - make money -films often have violent/criminal aspect

Answer 61

instance of public anxiety/alarm in response to a problem regarded as threatening the moral standard of society

Answer 62

1) Occurrence + signification - event occurs + its nature means media decides it needs dramatic coverage 2) Wider social coverage- story extended (e.g. expert opinion making), public attention focused 3) Social control- resolution is sought (e.g. change in law), satisfies public who feel they're empowered by media

Answer 63

-1960s -minor affray in Clacton become front page news -developed groups into 'folk devils'- moral panic about young people -media exagerrated what happened + how many involved -media predicted further violence - general underlying problem of disorderly youth -produced a deviance amplification spiral - seemed problem was increasing

Answer 64

-Miller + Reilly (1994)- some used to change public opinion -> act as 'ideological social control' e.g. media coverage of Islamic terrorism is seen by many to promote 'Islamophobia' -> gov. anti-terrorist legislation

Answer 65

-deviant act happened before moral panic- moral panics can't cause crime, just amplify it -who decides what is a proportionate reaction? -why do they not go on indefinitely? -late modernity- moral panics have < impact now

Answer 66

-not surprising that they centre around groups viewed as deviant/threatening to rich + powerful -media portrays criminals as w/c -> ignore white collar/corporate

Answer 67

-media is simply a 'window on the world' - reflects a true/real picture of crime -moral panics = response to 'anomie' - serve to reassert social solidarity

Answer 68

-media play down extent of women as victims- argue sexually explicit representation of women encourage predatory attitudes amongst men

Answer 69

-1/3 males compared to 1/10 females = convicted crime -men 50x > likely for sexual offences, 8x for robbery/drug offences, 5x for violence -women who admit > likely to be let off -women > likely to be given cautions + precourt sanctions

Answer 70

-Campbel = self-report studies, females > likely to be cautioned -Hood = men > likely to be given custodial sentence than women in similar cases, but not given harsher sentences of lesser crimes -Farrington + Morris = 408 offences, found women sentenced more leniently

Answer 71

Men perform instrumental role + out of the home Boys lack role model + reject feminine models of behaviour demonstrated to them Boys behaviour becomes aggressive/anti-social -> delinquency

Answer 72

Heidensohn = control over women occurs in home, public, in employment Home = domestic labour + childcare -> less time to commit, develop a bedroom culture so less opportunity to engage in crime (Dobash + Dobash) Public = women faced with fear of physical/sexual violence, CSEW = 54% women avoided going out after dark due to fear of becoming a victim Employment = sexual harassment + > supervision by male bosses, < likely to achieve high positions, work = constantly overseen Patriarchal controls prevent women from deviating

Answer 73

-Studies 39 15-46 w/c women- convicted of crime including fraud, theft, prostitution, violence -Women led to conform through promise of 2 deals = class deal + gender deal if rewards = unavailable -> crime -Women failed to find legitimate way of living-> in poverty + couldn’t get a job -Gender deal = physical/sexual abuse by fathers, domestic violence by partners, broken bonds with family (left them homeless + poor) -crime allowed them a decent standard of living - poverty + oppressive family life were 2 main causes of criminality

Answer 74

-Shows how failure of patriarchal society to deliver promised ‘deals’ removes preventing controls -Over focus on working-class -Sees women’s behaviour as determined by external forces - underplays importance of free will (deterministic) -Small sample size -> unrepresentative

Answer 75

Women become liberated from patriarchy- crimes become serious + frequent as men’s Women have being to adopt traditionally ‘male’ roles in legitimate activity + illegitimate activity > opportunities in legitimate structure -> more opportunity for white-collar crime Evidence -female share of offences rose during second 1/2 of 20th century = 1950s- 1/7 offences, 1990s = 1/6 offences -showed rising participation in crimes previously regarded as male

Answer 76

-Shows importance of investigating relationship between changes in women’s position + changes in patterns of offending -Evidence to support -Female crime began to increase 1950s- before liberation movement emerged in 1960s -Most female criminals = w/c -> not likely to be affected by liberation movement -Overestimates the extent to which women have become liberated

Answer 77

-Steffensmeier + Schwartz (2009) = female arrests 1/5 -> 1/3 between 1980 + 2003, rise in police stats not matched by victim surveys - > arrests due to CJS ‘widening the net’ -> less serious violence being arrested -Chesney-Lind (2006) = mandatory arrests for domestic violence, > female violence stats in USA -Sharpe + Gelsthorpe (2009) = UK net-widening - rise in female violent crime- convictions for minor offences without weapons -Steffensmeier et al (2005) = media moral panics about girls affecting sentencing decisions -> amplification spiral, CJS taking tougher stance, > convictions, > negative media coverage

Answer 78

CSEW (2012) shows gender differences -Homicide victims = 70% male, female victims > to know killer - < women victims of violence but > victims of intimate violence, 5x > likely to report sexual assault (but only 8% experienced reported it), women > likely to be victimised by acquaintance -Women have > fear but < risk of victimisation -BUT victim surveys don’t always convey frequency/severity of victimisation e.g. Walby + Allen (2004) = women > likely to be victims of multiple incidents

Answer 79

-Rejects the biological theory that men are biologically/genetically more aggressive -Men are made to feel that they need to ‘create’ their masculinity through social contexts- masculinity = social construction Normative masculinity = socially approved idea of what ‘real male’ is- men struggle to reach the constructed expectations of it (depends on men’s access to power + resources- > powerful men achieve masculinity different to < powerful men) -> this leads some men to commit crime- crime is an attempt to be successful at masculinity — explains men committing > crime = competitive nature of masculinity + need for control

Answer 80

fails to explain why particular men commit crime rather than others- all men have potential to turn to crime to gain power/control but not all do

Answer 81

Winlow- 2002: -loss of traditional manual jobs- w/c could express masculinity through being breadwinner/physical labour -increase service sector jobs- provided w/c men with legal employment but also criminal activity to express masculinity e.g. drugs

Answer 82

Postmodern- criminal subculture has emerged as a result of illicit business opportunities- violence way of showing masculinity -maintain reputation + employability- bodily capital e.g. bouncers developing physical assets by bodybuilding

Answer 83

-Winlow’s study = important- shows expression of masculinity changes with move from modern industrial -> postmodern deindustrialised society -but opens up new criminal opportunities for men to use violence to express masculinity by creating conditions for growth of an organised criminal subculture

Answer 84

-Black people 7x > likely to be arrested/convicted of an offence than whites + 3x > likely to be sent to prison -Asian ethnic groups > likely to be stopped/searched -Mixed evidence for sentencing/imprisonment between races -Black people 5x > likely than white to be stopped + searched- some ethnic groups > likely to be convicted

Answer 85

-Black offenders most likely to have contact with CJS in lifetime + > likely to be arrested/court + convicted despite lower levels of offending compared to white people generally + white youths in particular -Black + Asian offenders > likely to be charged X cautioned / remanded X bailed / prison X probation compared to white people -unfair treatment by CJS

Answer 86

-Last in 2005 -highest rate among white (42% admitting offence during lifetime), 39% mixed ethnicity, 28% black ethnicity - shows bias in CJS -but usually small sample sizes + people life (affects validity)

Answer 87

-police assumed m/c white people were > trustworthy, but black people were lower class + criminal -police would stop, harass + abuse young black men for no reason on a regular basis

Answer 88

Institutional racism = racism within the social processes + practices of an institution Stephen Lawrence case: -MacPherson report written by retired high court judge -> main conclusion was institutional racism within the Met Police + Lawrence’s murder would have been dealt with faster if not for this -gave 70 recommendations — including that allegations against the police should be investigated by a body separate from it -> set up Independent Police Complaints Commission -not an outdated case- still a racist institution -> caused a collapse in public trust + support

Answer 89

-Black men 5% > likely than white men to be imprisoned, on avg receive 20.8 months in prison, 14.9 months for white peoples -White + mixed ethnic groups most common sentence = community service, black/Asians/Chinese = community sentence -1993-2003 =-3,996 white prison population increased 48%, black prison population increased 138%, Asians increased 73% -shows how whole CJS is institutionally racist

Answer 90

-Canteen culture amongst the police- incl suspicion, macho values + racism -encourages racist stereotypes + mistrust of those from non white backgrounds

Answer 91

Higher levels of robbery among black people = product of labelling- arises from use of regular stop + search procedures -> self fulfilling prophecy

Answer 92

Police official statistics (2010)- 12% of men in London were black 54% street crimes + 46% knife crimes were committed by black men Often victim + attacker were black -> institutional racism can’t be the only factor- may not be having an impact

Answer 93

-Police do stop a proportionately higher number of black people - > ethnic minority youths out at night in inner cities + police target those in high-risk areas -area is disproportionately represented by young black males they are > likely to be stopped + searched- where they are rather than their ethnicity Evaluation = people there because it’s where they live, so police still choosing to target places where there’s young black males

Answer 94

-risk is higher for non-white groups -2003-2012 = 11% homicide victims from black ethnic groups + 9% from Asian groups- disproportionately more than in population -e.g. due to hate crime, deprived areas, interracial crime, subcultures Phillips + Bowling: -ethnic minorities > likely to be victims due to victimisation -hate crimes have increased, minority ethnic groups are > fearful of being victims of crime -e.g. 2012-2013 = 124k racially motivated incidents

Answer 95

-over-representations of Afro-Caribbeans in crime statistics = social construct -> result of discrimination by police + other CJS agencies -> evidence of racist views held by police officers

Answer 96

-Acknowledge that black people arent simply victims of institutional racism but > likely to be involved with street crimes —educational success = 2014- 46% of Afro-Caribbean boys achieved 5 GCSEs —family structure = 60% young black males live with just 1 parent, poor than nuclear fam —mass media = influence of black rap artists, encourages ‘Bling, violence + criminality’ according to New Right

Answer 97

-young blacks targeted by media/police -crime = political response to inequality + discrimination -political struggle = criminalised by British state, particularly media + overrepresentation on crime stats -Black + Asian people don’t actually commit > crime- targeted > + therefore criminalised > -Example: London riots

Answer 98

-60s + 70s - economic recession + strikes -> feelings of unrest/protest the dominance of ruling classes -gov focused on Black muggers to take attention away -> unrest between Black community + police -media published stories —moral panic + stereotypical image of Black mugger was born ——purposeful distraction from problems at the time- symbolised disintegration of ‘British way of life’

Answer 99

1. Deterrence = putting people off from committing crimes 2. Public protection = protecting general public from dangerous individuals 3. Retribution = getting justice for victims 4. Rehabilitation = enabling criminals to become a better, functioning member of society

Answer 100

3 causes- biological diffs, inadequate socialisation, rational choice theory Rational choice theory = criminals way up costs + benefits to act rationally + they target victims/places where risk is < -Aim = ‘target hardening’ - making cons a lot riskier- < likely for pros to outweigh — directed at specific crimes e.g. petty theft, managing/altering immediate env of crime, increasing effort/risks + decreasing rewards e.g. security guards, CCTV, surveillance e.g. Poyner + Webb- field experiment: -high rate of theft in Bullring- occurring in 2 densely packed markets -redesigned markets = crime decreased 70% Evaluation: -displacement- e.g. Chaiken et al (1974) = crackdown on subway robberies -> crime above surface, doesn’t always deter -assumes rational choice theory = cause, + assumes criminals act rationally -ignores WCC -ignores root causes

Answer 101

Wilson + Kelling- ‘broken windows’ thesis -> disorder that isn’t repaired leads to crime -2 methods -environmental improvement = must be repaired immediately without delay -zero tolerance policing = must react to slightest hint of disorder Zero tolerance policing in NYC: -‘Clean car program’ - cars with graffiti immediately taken away -between 1993-1996 = 50% drop in homicide rate -however other factors involved, e.g. NYPD 7k extra officers, general decline in crime rates across major US cities

Answer 102

-Deal with root, social causes of crime- remove conditions that predispose people to commit crime -relative deprivation, marginalisation, subcultures Examples: policies to reduce material/cultural deprivation, positive relationships between public + police (e.g. making police accountable), multi-agency approach (police liaise with other agencies) Example: The Perry Pre-School Project: -disadvantaged black children in Michigan- 3/4 year olds- 2 year intellectual enrichment program -diffs between experimental + control group- by 40, sig < arrests for violent crime/theft/drugs -every $ spent on project, 17 saved on welfare, prison etc -crime rate 50% lower than control group - < likely to go prison/welfare state- saves a lot of money Evaluation: -takes blame away from offender + places on society -focus too heavily on relative deprivation- not everyone who suffers turns to crime -ignores WC/corporate crime

Answer 103

-society has changed -entering post modernity- characterised by social fragmentation -social groups < important- create own identities + media influences 2 types of discipline: -Sovereign power = until 19th century, monarch = absolute power, control through physical, gruesome punishments -Disciplinary power = monitoring, managing, controlling of behaviour, govern mind + body through surveillance -> everywhere in society + everybody is subjected to surveillance due to massive technological developments Foucault- surveillance theory: -everyone is subject -most people obey rules due to knowing they’re being watched- fear of becoming wrong kind of person ‘The Panopticon’ = prison design, visible to guard, -> self-surveillance + self-discipline -prisons = metaphor for how we’re all controlled + watched by those in power Evaluation: -led to research into power of surveillance + disciplinary power -over exaggerates surveillance power -Norris = CCTV in car parks -> < crime in car parks but no effect elsewhere -assumes people care they’re being watched

Answer 104

1) Reduction = preventing future crime -deterrence -rehabilitation -incapacitation = removing ability to offend again 2) Retribution = paying back society -justification for punishing crime already committed rather than prevention -society is entitled to take ‘revenge’ + demonstrates societies outrage

Answer 105

-punishment uphold’s social solidarity + reinforce shared values -retribution point of view e.g. public outlet for anger/outrage + reasserts boundaries between right/wrong + strengthens collective values + builds social solidarity/cohesion Durkheim = 2 types of justice -retributive justice = severe + cruel punishments, simpler societies with similarity to one another -restitutive justice = restore things to way they were before + restore societies equilibrium Evaluation: -assumes laws are based on shared value consensus- X account for people in influence of power -punishments may not reinforce social solidarity- prisons can manufacture > crime

Answer 106

-how punishment services ruling class interests -punishment maintains existing social order- part of RSA- defending ruling class property -punishment is unequal against lower classes- given unequally to groups e.g. w/c, homeless Evaluation: -overemphasises class inequalities (not other inequalities) -deterministic- assumes class inequalities lead people to crime -states all laws reflect ruling-class interests

Answer 107

1) Incapacitation- protect public by lock away violent/undesirable people 2) Retribution- punish behaviour 3) Rehabilitation- reform criminals 4) Deterrence- deter people from crime

Answer 108

Effective? -1/2 offenders commit another crime within a year -other punishments have < reoffending rates -Matthews- prisons = ‘universities of crime’, reasons for offending = rarely addressed + little rehabilitation -Soloman = people are being imprisoned for minor offences where community punishments would be > suitable Alternatives: -growth in community based controls e.g. curfews, community service, electronic tagging -Cohen = cast the ‘net of control’ wider, state can control society even deeper

Answer 109

-younger people = > risk -infants < 1 = > at risk of being murdered -teenagers > vulnerable to offences e.g. assault, abuse, theft, sexual harassment -elderly at risk of abuse e.g. in nursing homes -likelihood of victimisation < with age

Answer 110

-minority ethnic groups > risk than white- being a victim in general + in racially motivated crimes -ethnic minorities > likely to report feeling under protected + over controlled by the police

Answer 111

-males > risk of being a victim of violent attacks- especially by strangers- ~70% homicide victims = male -women > likely victims of d.v, sexual violence, harassment + stalking

Answer 112

- > likely to become a victim again, if been a victim once -British crime survey = 60% population not been victim of any crime in a given year- 4% population victims of 44% all crimes in that period

Answer 113

-Research shows variety of effects = disrupted sleep, > security consciousness, difficulties in social functioning -Can create indirect victims- e.g. witnesses/family/friends —Pynoos et al = child witness of sniper attack had grief related dreams + altered behaviour for 1yr after -hate crimes against minorities -> ‘wave of harm’ = message to whole group of minority- intimidation

Answer 114

additionally to impact of crime- individuals face further victimisation from CJS, e.g. rape cases = victims often treated poorly by police/CJS

Answer 115

Fear of becoming a victim e.g. women scared to go out alone at night in fear of attack however, British Crime Survey argues this fear = irrational

Answer 116

Believes a victim is socially constructed Stereotype of ‘ideal victim’ by media = weak, innocent, blameless -> e.g. small child/old woman

Answer 117

-focuses on personal responsibility -identify factors producing patterns in victimisation- especially those making > likely -focuses on interpersonal crimes of violence -identify victims who have contributed to own -Wolfgang = study of 588 homicides in Philadelphia- 26% victims triggered events leading up to murder -linked to situational crime prevention Evaluation: -importance in victim-offender relationship- some cases it’s matter of chance on what party becomes victim -ignores influence of wider structural factors -‘victim blaming’ - Amir = claims 1/5 rapes = victim ‘precipitated’ - not much difference saying they ‘asked for it’ -ignores situation where victims are unaware of victimisation

Answer 118

-based on conflict approaches e.g. Marxist/feminism -seeks to resolve issues driving crime e.g. poverty -2 elements: —structural factors (e.g. patriarchy/poverty) = places powerless people at > risk —states power to apply/deny label of ‘a victim’ = social construct, state applies label to some but withholds from others Evaluation: -disregards victims own actions/choice e.g. choosing not to make their home secure -valuable in bringing attention to way ‘victim’ status can be socially constructed by those in power + how this benefits powerful at the expense of the powerless

Answer 119

Genocide in Rwanda: -minority Tutsi ruled over Hutu majority- were like social classes -Belgian’s ‘ethnicised’ them -Independence in 1962- Hutus to power- lead to civil war = hate propaganda to Tutsis, Hutus committed killings State-corporate crime: -Kramer + Michalowski = state-initiated + state-facilitated crime -initiated = e.g. Challenger space shuttle disaster, NASA made risky, cost-cutting decisions + gov pressured for shuttle to go into space in bad weather -facilitated = e.g. Deepwater Horizon oil rig disaster- largest accidental in history- gov failed to adequately oversee cost-cutting decisions War crimes: -can link to the holocaust -US/UK not given sanctions for going to war on Iraq as justified as self-defence

Answer 120

Domestic law: -Chambliss- state crime = acts defined by law as criminal + committed by state officials in pursuit of their jobs as representatives of the state -states can make laws allowing harmful acts -def -> inconsistencies = hard to define as countries create their own laws + laws differ International law: -Rothe + Mullin- state crime = action by/behalf of state that violates international law -uses globally agreed definitions (laws through treaties + agreements between states) -> intentionally designed -social construction using power = Strand + Tuman- Japan sought to overturn international ban on whaling by concentration aid on impoverished ‘microstates’ to bribe to vote against ban

Answer 121

Social harm + zemiology: -Michalowski- state crime also ‘legally permissible acts whose consequences are similar to those of illegal acts’ -Hillyard et al- replace study of crime with ‘zeminology’ (study of harm whether its against law/not)- prevents states from ruling themselves ‘out of court’ - single standard to apply to different states -but it’s vague = e.g. what level of harm must occur before defined as a crime, who decides what counts as a harm Labelling + societal reactions: -recognises its socially constructed- varies over time/between cultures -but can be considered a vague definition -unclear who is supposed to be relevant audience/what happens if different audiences has different verdicts -ignores fact that definitions may be manipulated by ruling-class ideology

Answer 122

-most states care about human rights image- susceptible to shaming -> respect rights -Schwendinger + Schwendinger = define state crime as violation of people’s basic human rights by state/agents e.g. state practising sexism = committing crime as denying basic rights -however, there’s disagreements over what counts as human rights- e.g. some don’t include freedom from hunger -> Green + Ward = people can’t exercise liberty if they’re malnourished- e.g. therefore exporting food from a famine area is state crime

Answer 123

-Adorno et al = willingness to obey orders of superiors without question- link to WWII Germans as disciplinarian socialisation were common -Thought people committing torture/genocide were psychopaths- research shows no psychological difference- e.g. Arendt- Nazi Adolf Eichmann = relatively normal Evaluation: -some people don’t display features of being abnormal -shows influence of superiors/state on behaviour of individuals -oversimplified + outdated -only accounts for why small amount follow orders

Answer 124

-Obedience to higher authority -Research shows people are willing to obey authority- even if harms others- people socialised not to question Green + Ward: -individuals who become torturers need to be re-socialised -states create ‘enclaves of barbarism’ = torture is practised + segregated from outside society- torturer regards as everyday life Kelman + Hamilton: -study of My Lai massacre in Vietnam -3 features producing crime of obedience: —authorisation = authority approves act —routinisation = pressure to turn act into routine after committing —dehumanisation = enemy portrayed as sub-human, normal moral principles don’t apply Evaluation: -Kelman + Hamilton only explain 1 type of crime which is genocide

Answer 125

-Bauman- features of modern society making Holocaust possible = division of labour (no one felt personally responsible), bureaucratisation (killing made normalised), instrumental rationality (rational, efficient methods to achieve goal), science + technology) Evaluation: -wasn’t all these reasons that led to the Holocaust- racist ideology that created the motivation -over focus on 1 state crime- can’t be applied -outdated- > media + technology now- things wouldn’t have been able to be kept quiet

Answer 126

-Aluarez = been growing impact of international human rights movement -> pressure on states -Cohen = states have > effort to conceal human rights crimes- have to legitimise actions- ‘spiral of state denial’-> “It didn’t happen” -> “If it did happen it is something else” -> “Even if it is what you say it is, it’s justified” -Cohen = techniques of neutralisation- used to justify human rights violations —denial of victim, denial of injury, denial of responsibility, condemning the condemners, appeal to higher loyalty -impose a different construction of event from what might appear to be the case Evaluation: -not all countries committing state crime don’t have a culture of denial- open about it