Strat Flashcards

Question

Weaknesses of Marxist theory

Answer 1

-Underestimates robust power of capitalist- isn’t another viable economic system -too negative of capitalist societies -where communism has been applied- result = failed economic system (overestimates effectiveness of communism) -economic determinism = too much emphasis on social class, economic system shapes society’s inequalities -economic reductionism = states all social phenomena have an economic explanation -analysis of class = too simplistic -> dismisses social class between bourgeoisie and proletariat

Answer 2

-reject notion that working-class revolution would happen- instead we move away from old class conflicts e.g. wages + hours of work- now on QOL issues + possession of cultural capital -Marcuse (1964) -> capitalism = very successful in bedazzling working class with ‘false needs’ to buy the latest consumer goods (examples: subscriptions, stanley cup) -media is a toxic influence which undermines people’s ability to think critically about social conditions of society -Freidman = lifestyle of rich + famous is now modern opium of masses -age of ignorance is stopping a revolution -> mass of society is less knowledgeable about political + economic structure of society (w/c = less united)

Answer 3

Strength: attempt to explain + give example for non-example of revolution Weakness: pessimistic + patronising (audiences > critical than neo-marxists give them credit for), difficult to distinguish between false + true needs

Answer 4

-2 class system argues that if you have to work- you’re part of the proletariat -need to look at who has control over economic resources: control over investments/money capital, control over physical means of production- land/factories/offices, control over labour + power (bourgeoisie = all, proletariat = none, managers = some)

Answer 5

-uses them to describe those who aren’t clearly capitalists nor workers (contradictory class) -distinguished through 2 ways: relationship to authority within production + possession of skills/expertise -ranks individuals based on their relationship to the means of production and the authority they have in their occupation and skills (creates multidimensional class structure explaining > diversity of class) - e.g. those who own means of production can vary from traditional bourgeoisie to the self-employed (petty bourgeoisie)

Answer 6

-Richest player won + occasionally lower class player could rise up an income level -> class mobility is hard -Marxist idea that bourgeoisie gain ownership of property + used to keep getting richer -proletariat = keep getting poorer- kept having to give money to bourgeoisie, also living in false class consciousness + unable to overthrow bourgeoisie for a revolution

Answer 7

Societies stratified by social class, status and party

Answer 8

Class = based on market position + purely economic Social class = groups of classes linked by similar class of mobility (movement up/down social hierarchy) 4 social classes: - privileged = through property or educational qualifications - petit bourgeoisie = self-employed + managers - lower middle class = white-collar workers + technicians - working class = manual workers

Answer 9

Some people can get higher incomes- sell abilities + skills in job market- have rare skills, talents, qualifications that are in demand -> Society may value some skills + talents > than others e.g. footballers/celebrities

Answer 10

Status = not purely based on wealth Can affect life chances e.g. impacting health, family, experiences with CJS Social closure = members of some status groups try to restrict membership to their groups by outsiders - recognises that income + wealth confer status but suggested that a person can have wealth but little status - suggests it is very rare that high status groups allow wealth alone to be enough to enter their status group - allows dominant groups to hold onto their privileges by excluding others based on arbitrary criteria

Answer 11

-Down the social classes, life chances decrease e.g: - privileged = more education, private healthcare, networking opportunities - petty bourgeoisie = some property, maybe private education - middle class = public healthcare, own home, high education - working-class = state welfare, may be excluded from educational opportunities, public healthcare

Answer 12

- those higher up social structure ensure their children fill up certain occupations - e.g. 7% go to private schools but fill a disproportionate amount of certain jobs- e.g. 65% of judges, 57% lords, 44% actors

Answer 13

- not only political parties but all the institutions involved in the distribution of political power including also pressure groups charities, clubs and societies - Weber believes where there are >2 people, there will be a struggle for power - amount of political power exercised by individuals in a party is often linked to their class + to their success - however, they can be organised group trying to get -wort + influence society

Answer 14

Strengths: -To fully understand social inequality + conflict, it was important to consider status differences between people as well as their economic position e.g. status characteristics such as age, gender, ethnicity -Avoids problem of economic determinism associated with Marxism because it adopts a multidimensional approach to the study of social inequality Weaknesses: -Does not easily explain those who have inherited position/wealth + do not sell their skills in their labour market. it also excludes individuals who are not employed such as housewives -e.g. housewives of wealthy businessman etc might have a lot of status and power but don’t have anything economically -Marxists argue that focusing on multiple dimensions of inequality obscures/distracts the fundamental importance of class divisions within society

Answer 15

- sex = anatomy of an individuals reproductive system - gender = socially constructed- attributes associated with the genders

Answer 16

- systematic oppression of women - men = positions of power + seen as ‘superior’ - social construct, but stems from biological differences

Answer 17

Firestone- biology = basis for women’s inequality -women at times (e.g. during pregnancy) dependent on others -> men develop physical + psychological power + control so dominate Equality only when physical dominance = eradicated -Radical feminists believe until babies can be born outside the womb inequality will remain Argue gender strat > important Delphy = men exploit women within the family, blame the exploitation of women on men, women dominated through violence/its threat, rape, domestic violence

Answer 18

Men are prepared to hold onto their power at any cost Johnson- use violence against women to control + maintain dominance Used to explain systematic use of actual violence, isolation, economic subordination Domestic violence = evidence: -900 women killed by men in England/Wales (last 6 years) -April 2019-March 2022 = 1 woman a week on avg was killed by a male partner/ex-partner - minimum of £427 million needed to be invested per year to fund specialist domestic abuse services for women + their children across England

Answer 19

-Response to male oppression + violence directed towards women -Some feminists advocated for separatism in form of lesbianism to liberate from male oppression -remains controversial among other feminists

Answer 20

-ignores other forms of inequality such as class + ethnicity -Ortner (1974) = culture is the basis of differentiation between the sexes, it is always valued more highly than biology + is controlled by men, whereas women are see. as being closer to nature because they give birth -Rosaldo (1974) = discusses biological inequality but from a domestic standpoint- most power lies in the public sphere (socialising, work life, debates about public policy). women < likely to join these conversations because they are are > likely confined to house looking after children -Mead (1935) = differences in tribes in New Guinea - differences = entirely social, not based on sex - 1 tribe → women = traders, men stayed in domestic sphere + reared children - different tribes raised children to have expectations distinct from those in neighbouring tribes + different from norms in USA + Europe - gender = learned response, X an innate difference

Answer 21

1st (1850s-1940s) = legal rights e.g. voting, employment limited to factories/domestic work, very few rights in marriage, 1928 = full suffrage, wartime experience 2nd (1960s-1980s) = increase equality for > than voting, contraceptive pill (1961), Sex Discrimination Act (1975), issues e.g. domestic violence + marital rape, changes in custody/divorce law, endangered women’s shelters 3rd (1990s) = began to focus on intersectionality (movement criticised for focus on white, m/c women- ignored diverse experience), redefined women/girls as assertive + powerful 4th (2008-) = justice, oppositions to sexual harassment + violence against women (street/workplace harassment, rape culture)

Answer 22

Benson (1972) = women benefit capitalism 2 ways: reproduce next gen of workers, provide free domestic labour (makes male workers more effective) e.g. 2012 = laundry services worth £97.2bn women in UK spend 2x > doing housework than men Capitalism exploits males + females -> women > to have children + work part-time -> low paid + part-time Women’s exploitation ends when capitalism -> communism

Answer 23

-Believe class plays a role + don’t believe that gender inequality is possible under capitalism -Want to work with men Engels (1972): - in the past people lived in promiscuous hordes where sexual relationships were not fixed + property from mother → child -men became more determined to pass their property onto their own offspring, they began to demand fidelity from their womenfolk → monogamous marriage + power of men over women Coontz + Henderson (1986) = attempted to link Engels theory with other anthropological material, suggesting that patriarchy was more likely to occur in societies that were patraruchal rather than matriarchal ◦ women moved to live with husband’s family- she was > likely to lose control over goods produced → men become more powerful

Answer 24

-Liberal fem = it relies on a revolution -> utopian + unrealistic -Radical fem = too much emphasis on capitalism being ultimate source of stratification -only looks at gender inequality -ignores female choice to start a family

Answer 25

-Achieving liberal + political rights equal to those of men -Society discriminates against women- belief that women are < intellectually + physically capable than men -Giving women freedom to exercise personal choices- gov. shouldn’t impede their progress -Support the emancipation of men

Answer 26

-Gender roles = socially constructed- gender role socialisation in family -> contributes to reinforcing gender role expectations (fuels gender inequalities) -Through manipulation + canalisation (teach expected norms/values) -Manipulation = encouragement of behaviour that is seen as being gender appropriate -Canalisation = channeling of children towards toys + activities that are seen as appropriate for their gender -learn gender identity through internalising behaviour- developed through 2ndary socialisation agents Criticism = temporal validity -> may not be as valid today e.g. more family diversity + gender identities are no longer fixed (no longer clear gender norms)

Answer 27

Education helps girls to get economic power through careers as well as political power -> impact of patriarchal strat is in decline

Answer 28

Gender role socialisation but is reinforced by political + legal factors

Answer 29

Horizontal inequality = refers to occupations + differences in jobs between gender -e.g. 2016 = women only 18% in ICT Professional Occupations Vertical inequality = levels of jobs + pay, men still take up higher paid jobs + > likely to take up leadership positions -women concentrated at lower levels

Answer 30

-Evidence from pay gaps etc —- 2016 = 18%, 2022 = 8.3% (has been progress, but there hasn’t been enough progress) -Some argue it’s too optimistic -Radical feminists = more revolutionary change needs to happen

Answer 31

-1970 Equal Pay Act- raised from campaign from females at Ford Motors in Dagenham -Sex Discrimination Act 1975 -1983 Equal Pay regulations- equal pay for work of = value

Answer 32

-Full-time work only = 17.4% -> 9.4% (since 1980) -Full-time + part-time = 27.7% -> 19.1%

Answer 33

-Unpaid work- men > involved with childcare but primary responsibility still with women -38% of women with dependent children are in part-time work -7% of men with dependent children are in part-time work -Durrant, 2009 = women with/without children work 15 hours on household chores, men spend 5 hours

Answer 34

-Biggest change in occupational activity in 20th century was increased rate of employment for married women + mothers - < 1/10 women in employment at start of 20th century -> 74% by 2009 -2011 employment for mothers had grown to match overall female employment at 67%

Answer 35

-2013: men = 53%, women 47% of labour force -figures mask sig dif in rates of full time + part time employment -men smaller % of part-time employment compared to women -Women’s Business Council, 2012 = 5.85 mil women working part-time, only 2.1 million men

Answer 36

- difference in pay = continued existence of differences in kinds of level of work done by men + women - Catherin Hakim (1979) - occupational segregation → 2 types: - horizontal segregation = men + women concentrated in different jobs in dif sectors of economy - public sector = women in health/social work + education (79% + 73% (2006)) - private sector = women in clerical, administrative, retail + personal services, men found in skilled manual + upper professional sectors (EOC, 2006) - evidence of horizontal segregation decreasing = < men doing traditional work- primary (e.g. coal mining) + secondary (e.g. car manufacturing) sectors, + increasing female educational success- entering male dominated work (e.g. Women + Work Commission, 2005 = 75% pharmacists = women) - vertical segregation = women occupy the lower levels of pay + status in particular jobs - glass ceiling = situation in which in promotion appears to be possible, but restrictions/discrimination creates barriers that prevent it - BBC, 2012 = < 1/3 of senior position across 11 key sectors held by women

Answer 37

- difference due to biology- instrumnetal role of males + expressive role of females - Men > fitted to go out + physically/mentally work hard to provide economic support → women best in domestic sphere - roles considered = natural through proper socialisation- boys learn to be men ~= girls learn to be women

Answer 38

- pay gap reflects that men have > human capital than women- > orientation toward paid work - women = less committed- > likely to take career breaks / go into part-time work - men able to build up skills, qualifications, experience → in receipt of on-the-job training + employment < likely to be disrupted by family commitments

Answer 39

- men have more control decision making → women have less control / control over less important things - men control resources- e.g. allowance system, even in pooling they have control over how money is used - e.g. Edgell (1980) - m/c couples- found: - men decisions over = moving house, finance, car - women decisions over = interior decorations, food/domestic spending, children’s clothes - women have less chance at social mobility

Answer 40

- gender inequality + stereotypes → employment of men + women in different segments of the labour market characterised by various incomes - primary sector = secure, well-paid jobs with good prospects - secondary sector = poor pay, insecurity + no ladder of promotion - secondary more likely to be concentrated with women → affects life chances - Reasons for this: - women’s ‘unsuitability’ - Studies by West and Zimmerman + Hartnett (employers subscribed to myths + - stereotypes about female workers): - male workers X like working for female manager - women < dependable - time off for family commitments - women stop work to marry + have children - children psychologically damaged by mothers spending long periods of time at work - disrupted career development - social pressure to have family → women take extensive time out- lack experience + miss out on promotion - Abbott + Wallace = husbands career > important → wife has to interrupt her career is husbands career requires moving - weak legal + political framework supporting women - legislation failed to protect women’s employment rights e.g. Coussins = Sex discrimination act doesn’t apply to many areas of employment - gov < to promote free/cheap nursery care - changes in position of part-time workers - shown men have some responsibility in child-rearing - e.g. paid leave for either partner - 2015 = coups can take Shared Paternal Leave up to 50 weeks- 37 weeks pay - social mobility < for women = likely to remain in secondary sector of labour market- limited promotional opportunities - gender stratification in employment affects women in the home + in the world of employment

Answer 41

- examined gender + work from across the world - reliable contraception, equal opportunities legislation, expansion of white collar + part-time → increase lifestyle choices given to women - 20% women = home-centred - 60% women = adaptive = combining family + work - 20% women = work-centred

Answer 42

- Liberal Feminists - it is due to gender role socialisation making it seem that women are less intellectually capable than men → masculine dominance- reinforces vertical/horizontal segregation - has been a movement due to policy- e.g. equal pay, sex discrimination act - Marxist Feminists - due to capitalist system → women make up cheap domestic labour - have to be concentrated at the bottom/secondary sectors - part of reserve army of labour- vulnerable in recessions- disposable part of workforce

Answer 43

- educational achievement girls + boys both improved- still differences - 1980s = concern = girls underachievement, 1990s = girls began to outperform - females do different subjects influencing careers e.g. choosing arts + humanities - little evidence to support the general better results of girls results in improved paid employment opportunities- women = < likely with similar qualifications to achieve success in paid employment - men predominantly hold positions of powerazzzz

Answer 44

Girls achievement: -rise of feminism -changing employment -changing families -changing ambitions Gender and subject choice: -National Curriculum, post-16 education, vocational courses -Reasons = early socialisation, gender identity + peer pressure, gender domains, gendered subject image, gendered careers Boys underachievement: -laddish subcultures -feminisation of schooling -literacy -globalisation

Answer 45

Men: -Higher death rates -4 years lower life expectancy - > likely to die of suicide, heart disease + cancer Women: - > likely to spend > years in poor health / with a disability -suffer > mental illness -higher users of healthcare services than men

Answer 46

- men = 79.5 - women = 82.5 - by 2035: men = 83, women = 87 - 2/3 deaths occur before 65 years = men - 58% people surviving > 65 years = female

Answer 47

- men don’t seem to experience as much ill health as women (BUT may not access services/report illness) - women = major users of health services + spend > years in poor health with disability - women over 16 = 50% visit doctor - report more head + stomach aches, high blood pressure, weight problems - consume more prescription (anti-depressants) / non-prescription drugs - visit doctors for conditions such as insomnia, depression

Answer 48

-Feminine traits -Masculine traits -Motherhood -risk behaviour -domestic violence -economic disadvantage

Answer 49

-Stress -Poverty -Socialisation -Different diagnosis

Answer 50

-Female mortality = rarer -> women’s weaker ties with labour market + socio-economic class based occupations -Black Report 1980 = estimated premature death rate amongst people in disadvantaged social classes was 2.5x higher than those in advantaged classes

Answer 51

Race = physical characteristics of an individual Ethnicity = describes a group of people who share a common + distinctive culture, religion, language, history

Answer 52

-86% of population = White British (Wales, North East + South West) -parts of London e.g. Newham- figure falls to 49% -London remains 60% white British (areas such as Kensington + Chelsea = higher) -being part of ethnic minority linked to social exclusion + few advantages -but depends on individual’s own assessment of ethnicity -> discrepancies may occur

Answer 53

Ethnic minorities increased since 2011 e.g. Asian/Asian British/Asian Welsh increased from 7.5% -> 9.3% + White British 86% -> 81%

Answer 54

- 1st- 1940s-1970s = primary migration of people from former colonies in Caribbean + Indian subcontinent - 2nd- 1980s onwards = 3 categories- secondary migration of dependents (of those who came in the first place), asylum seekers, from EU countries (due to expansion)

Answer 55

1991 Census offered a choice of 9 categories, 2011 Census offered a choice of 18 categories

Answer 56

- most focus to ethnicity based around genes + biology- started with Darwin’s theory of evolution - Spencer (1996) = different human groups have developed in isolation + therefore have distinct differences, also believes white race is inherently superior → echoes beliefs of British Empire (now has been discredited)

Answer 57

- Jones (1994)- against ideas mentioned - all humans capable of interbreeding- genetic difference between racial groups no > than range of genetic differences within other differentiated groups of society - Global terms = white European groups = minority, but = majority in UK - contemporary UK ethnicity plays major part in stratification = 15% of total pop - but absent from positions of power, disproportionately represented in prison/unemployed/undereducated

Answer 58

-Ethnic equalities in relation to a common value system- believe differences + inequalities are temporary -Parsons (1966) - argued that the ‘American Negro’ was a 2nd class citizen as skin colour symbolised status- over time this common value would change + minority ethnic groups able to play full role in meritocratic system -Minority needs to culturally, socially + economically assimilate

Answer 59

-Believe in encouraging/enforcing assimilation of ethnic minorities e.g. learning English should be compulsory Murray (1984) -African-Americans constitute a black underclass defined by their cultural attitudes (e.g. unwillingness to work, criminality, irresponsible parenting) (still remains popular view among right wing but these ideas now create conflict)

Answer 60

Patterson: -Cultural differences (language, quals, customs) disadvantages the immigrant group in a host society -disadvantage will disappear as immigrant group is assimilated into host society (ethnic group absorbed -> community by adapting to origin’s population culture) -Culture clash between W. Indians (boisterous/noisy) + English hosts (private/quiet) - hosts weren’t racist, just unsure how to act

Answer 61

Cox (1948): -racial differences/racism are creation of economic system (capitalism) -> divisions + justifies pay/treating some groups < well than others (slavery is an example) -Ethnic minorities are part of reserve army of labour + also used to divide w/c opinion (allows for scapegoating) Miles (1980): -ethnic minorities part of racialised class fractions (occupy same class structure but treated dif. due to ethnicity) -racism prevents them being accepted by white m/c Gilroy (1987) = “There ain’t no Black in the Union Jack” - seen as culturally dif

Answer 62

-Ethnic groups = negatively privileged status groups -> lower status = affects their market situation/class -> social closure keeps them out of authority positions -Concrete ceiling = minority groups placed in 2ndary labour market -> weaker life chances than white colleagues -Racism = ethnic minorities in separate class position under w/c (Rex (1979)- class it black underclass (economically disadvantaged- marginalised + < power))

Answer 63

-Racism + ethnicity affects ethnic groups differently -Superdiversity = globalisation + consumption patterns -> eroding ethnic identities -Not all ethnic groups (or ind within) experiences same (dis)advantages -Hybrid identities created due to mixing of identities + therefore culture created by choice (X imposed at birth) -therefore Modood = critical of portrayal of ethnic minority groups as victims

Answer 64

-ethnic groups with highest employment rates are White -highest rates of unemployment are in Bangladeshi (14%), White + Black Caribbean (10%) (whereas White = 5%) 2011 Census: -male unemployment highest in Other Black (17%), White + Black Caribbean (16%), Caribbean (15%) -women highest for Black African (12%), White + Black Caribbean (11%), Other Black (11%)

Answer 65

- Employment + unemployment - people from minority ethnic groups > likely to face unemployment - skilled + experienced women from minority ethnic groups are 2x as likely as white woke to be employment - Black + minority ethnic groups are over-represented in semi-skilled/unskilled manual occupations + they often work longer + > unsociable hours - Lower pay - Black + Asian people have lower average earnings, even with same job level as white people - Are greater than 50% > likely to be paid at National Minimum Wage compared to all those employed - Housing - Black + minority ethnic groups are 6x likely to live in overcrowded accommodation + account for > 1/3 of those living in overcrowded homes - > likely to live in rented accommodation - > likely than whites to be homeless- around 3x as likely to become homeless as the white population - Social mobility - ethnic minorities experience > upward + downward mobility than the white majority - although they can experience upward mobility + rapidly growing Black + Asian middle class → still face disadvantages e.g. only 62% of Indian graduates are in middle-class jobs - Poverty - almost 1/2 of all children from ethnic minorities live in low-income households (1/4 of White British children) - 2/5 of people from ethnic minorities live in low income households compared to 1/5 of white households

Answer 66

Modood: • introduces concept of ‘cultural racism’ ◦ “colour, class and culture are the three distinct dimensions of race” → “the more distant an individual or group is from a White, upper-middle class, British, Christian norm, the greater the marginality or exclusion” ▪ state should promote multiculturalism → ‘Britishness’ should embrace cultural/religious diversity Racial discrimination: • treating some less favourably because of their assumed racial identity • 2004 BBC survey: ◦ CVs from 6 fictitious candidates given traditionally White/Black African/Muslim names sent to 50 well-known firms + had same quals/experience ◦ 1/4 of applications with traditionally White names gave interview offers ◦ only 9% of Muslim applications + 13% for Black candidates • National Centre for Social Research (2008): ◦ avg. of 9 applications for a positive result if the applicant appeared to be White, 16 if they appeared to be African/Asian Racial Prejudice: • usually negative attitudes seen about someone racially different • British Social Attitudes Survey asks “Would you describe yourself as very prejudiced/a little prejudiced against people of other races?” ◦ those saying ‘very’ or ‘a little’ prejudiced ▪ 38% 1987 → 25% 2001 → 38% 2011 → 30% 2013 • mass media ◦ Rothon + Heath → rise in prejudice fuelled by hostile newspaper coverage of immigration + asylum seekers ◦ media representations show prejudice that is product of New Right politicians/journalists Institutional Racism: • Institutional racism = aspects of society esp state/large institutions have procedures + rules which (in)directly treat people different ◦ direct = e.g. not allowing non-whites to enter certain professions ◦ indirect = e.g. if qualifications in the UK were only suitable for certain posts ▪ only been 2 chief constables in the police who were black ▪ found British born Black workers earn around 8% less despite having same qualifications • workplaces need to publish data + pay data as a starting point • Macpherson report into murder of Stephen Lawrence → Met police guilty of ‘institutional racism’ + fundamentally racist for their handling of the investigation • neither conscious or intentional ◦ manner in which institutions operate has racist outcomes Ethnocentrism: • view the world from the standpoint of one’s own culture + to take for granted its superiority to others

Answer 67

- from 1991 → 2006 = differences in achievement of A*-C grades - Indian + Other Asian groups have highest rates of achievement - Black + Pakistani have lowest rates of achievement - some ethnic groups outperform at GCSE/A Level/have > Higher Education participation rates but some EM communities perform < than white peers - fewer 1st class + upper 2nd class degrees - serious effects on ability to perform in labour market - men in these groups do outperform women Reasons = cultural deprivation, material deprivation, labelling

Answer 68

- strong link between class of ethnic groups + educational achievement (FSM as an indicator) - class is a dimensional factor in ethnicity + educational achievement → class affects just as much as ethnicity does - White students receiving FSM have lower GCSE achievement rates than EM receiving FSM

Answer 69

- UK = Black women 5x > at risk than white women of dying during pregnancy - feel that they aren’t listened to by doctors → errors in care - 1/4 women died during maternity (2012-14) = born outside UK (women who died had arrived in the UK avg 4 years previously) - BAME groups between 10-50% more at risk from covid - Bangladeshi people 2x > likely to die from covid than white people - Parliamentary Office of Science Technology (2007) = African Caribbean, Bangladeshi + Pakistani report poorest health - those from ethnic minorities > likely to be diagnosed with mental health disorders (specifically Black African) Life expectancy: - EM groups in UK have similar life expectancies to the majority White British population - diff is men vs women as opposed to ethnicities - but there are relatively low numbers of older people in EM cultures due to migration demographics (1948-70 → now just reaching retirement age)

Answer 70

Impairment: WHO = ‘any loss of abnormality of psychological, physiological or anatomical structure or function’ e.g. depression, blind, lacking limb’ -product of the individual Disability: Barnes (1992) = ‘the loss or limitation of opportunities to take part in the usual life of the community on equal levels to others due to physical barriers’ -product of society

Answer 71

- 2011/12 = 11.6 million disabled people in Great Britain (19%) - rises with age - 6% children - 16% w/c adults - 45% adults > state pension age - females > proportion of disabled people - females = 54% - males = 46% - due to longer life expectancy + > likely to access healthcare services - most common disability in this age group is mobility/lifting + carrying

Answer 72

- sick + constant pain - in a wheelchair - unable to speak for themselves - treated as a homogenous category - old + a burden - but one thing they have in common = 1 (or >) significant impairment that makes daily life > difficult

Answer 73

Prejudice + discrimination, hate crime - 2011 report = published 10 cases in which disabled people had been seriously injured/died because of abuse - example = Fiona Pilkington case (2007)- set fire to her car which she + her learning-disabled daughter were in - due to suffering years of harassment: - disabled people often don’t report: - fear of consequences - afraid they won’t be believed - systematic failure by public authorities to recognise extent of harassment/abuse - not enough done to prevent in first place - March 2012, home office = estimated 65,000 disability hate crimes a year in England/Wales - some charities estimate could be as high as 100,000 - + there’s upward movement- 2013/14 = 2000 cases reported (2x 2008) - charities argue the increase hate crimes has been fuelled by coalition gov ‘benefit scrounger’ rhetoric Employment - ONS Longitudinal study - 17% adults with impairments = faced barriers to using training + learning services (9% without) - 56% = barriers to work they did/hours they could work - 45% = find it difficult to pay unexpected bill, pay off loan, have holiday - 29% = find it difficult to get into/move about in buildings (outside home) - 4x > likely to be unemployed + 45% said flexible working would have helped them stay at work (but weren’t given option) Education + poverty - ONS Longitudinal study - disabled adults nearly 3x likely to have no formal qualifications as non-disabled adults - 1/2 as likely to have a degree - Leonard Cheshire Disability (2014) = disabled people’s day-to-day lives can cost up to 25% > than those without disability - Youth Cohort study = examined educational outcomes of students - disabled students staying on in education at 16 is same as national avg, they were < likely than non-disabled students to have jobs/training + > likely to be NEETs (22%) - 15% of adults with impairments have degree-level qual, 27% no formal education Health (EVALUATION- class > disability) - social class dif in health made worse through NHS inequalities - Tudor-Hart = inverse care law = healthcare resources tend to be distributed in inverse proportion to need - those who need it least get the most, those most in need get the least - Why = poorest areas have < GP practices → fewer doctors, < time with doctor, overcrowded facilities, may lose pay for time off - middle class = ask > q’s, assertive, money for private care

Answer 74

- 1970 Chronically Sick + Disabled Person’s Act = 1 of first to recognise + give rights to disabled people - Disability Discrimination Act = unlawful to discriminate against disabled people in connection with employment/provision of goods/management premises - 2005 DDA introduced the Disability Equaliry Duty which obliged local authorities to be > proactive in promoting inclusion - 2010 Equality Act = combined all previous anti-discriminatory legislation, disability became a protected characteristic

Answer 75

- 2015 = confirmed by Disabled People Against Cuts that the UN’s comminittee on the rights of Disabled Persons with Disabilities was carrying out an inquiry into ‘systematic and grave violations of disabled people’s human rights by the UK government’ - evidence submitted included = disabled people have been disproportionately harmed by coalition govs austerity cuts e.g. ending Independent Living Fund + transferring responsibilities to local authorities - extended to concerns about reliability at work assessments, ‘spare bedroom tax’, benefit sanctions on disabled people

Answer 76

-‘science’ of improving humankind through selective breeding e.g. Nazi ideas led to killing around 275k disabled people- propaganda showed disabled people are “useless eaters” who had lives “unworthy of living” -> “unfair burden” on society -> compulsory sterilisation programme -Shakespeare = prenatal tests to screen for Down’s syndrome- women have right to choose but parent rarely provided with full info- 90% Down’s syndrome pregnancies are terminated- taking test implies acting on results (now a growing ‘Downs pride’ movement (Gordon, 2018) Evaluation: -raises profound + uncomfortable questions about society’s view of disability -draws attention to how disabled people have been/still are treated as ‘other’

Answer 77

-disability is determined by impairment + disabled people need constant care from medical personnel -individualistic approach- disability as a property of individuals who are unable to take advantage of opportunities that able-bodied people have -disadvantaged position of disabled people as an inevitable consequence of individual impairment- degree of impairment determines degree of disadvantage Evaluation: Strengths: -many do rely on medial intervention to function/stay alive -medicine can offer palliative care/cure for painful + debilitating conditions -disabled people can understand nature of their impairment Weaknesses: -fails to recognise role of society in disabling people with an impairment -led to person’s impairment becoming their master status- seen as purely what’s wrong with them- Thompson (1993) = care/dependency take precedence over rights, autonomy + independence

Answer 78

-disabled people as victims of heredity/circumstance, deserving of pity + in need of practical/financial support from those > fortunate -encourage giving through events e.g. Red Nose Day -Swain et al “Charity advertising provokes emotions of fear, pity and guilt, obsensibility to raise resources on behalf of disabled people…” Evaluation: -Disabled People’s International + UK Disabled People’s Council call for “Rights, not charity”- disabled people have not had a voice in organisations supposed to represent them (Davies, 1994) -Influence of social model has affected + traditional organisations have rebranded + focus on rights of disabled people to be full integrated -Organisations of disabled people are increasingly influential politically

Answer 79

-explicit criticism of the medical model -disadvantaged position of disabled people is a product of society rather than impairment- power imbalance between disabled + non-disabled people, + disability is a social construct (culturally + historically) -Oliver (1990) = marginalisation/oppression of disabled people- due to industrialisation/factory system- > intensive labour process + worth of individuals came to be assessed according to their economic value (paid employment = main identity/status), social exclusion is reinforced by 19th century state policy- 2 main consequences: —state transferred assessment, treatment + care to medical professionals- ideological dominance of the medical model —increasingly committed to long-stay hospitals/asylums- industrialisation in total institutions (Goffman)- stripped disabled people of identity Evaluation: Strengths: -major shift in society’s understanding of disability -rationale for institutional/organisational changes -attention to consequences of identifying people with impairment Weaknesses: -argued it denies reality of impairment -fails to confront complexity of disability- WHO (2022) = disability is a complex phenomenon that is a problem at level of a person’s body + a social phenomenon

Answer 80

Subjective = how individuals view their own social class in society’s hierarchy Objective = based on external factors e.g. wealth/occupation

Answer 81

Weberian concepts- class determined by way people make a living Determined by ‘market capacity’ 3 types: -upper class = capital ownership -middle class = educational credentials -working class = labour power —acknowledges subdivisions within each class

Answer 82

neo-Marxist whose framework highlighted growth of middle-class - added the concept of ownership of economic resources + organisational assets + skills/credential assets → created 10 ‘contradictory class locations’ between bourgeoisie + proletariat

Answer 83

classes are a “set of roles whose common location in social space is a function and degree of economic power attaching to them.” - 3 sources of economic power - deriving from the ownership of means of production - deriving from control of labour/capital - deriving from ‘marketability’ → possession of attribute/capacity that is of value in the labour market - identifies 7 class occupying qualitatively different locations in terms of economic power

Answer 84

drew on both Marxist and Weberian concepts- wanted to explain how class structure was legitimised - identified 4 types of capital - economic capital = income, wealth, inheritance, money assets - cultural capital = attitudes of mind, tastes, qualifications - social capital = range + depth of people’s contacts- based on social networks - can then possess symbolic capital = represent high status in the eyes of other- have specific tastes + cultural preferences as well as useful contacts (no downward mobility)

Answer 85

different groups use consumption practices to make themselves different from each other

Answer 86

- danger that you prompt a positive response when the respondent doesn’t identify with a class / may think they’re being uncooperative - sociologists goals should always be establish objective class- otherwise can’t ask about life chances/opportunities - how do you operationalise objective approach- info is descriptive + everyone likely to be different

Answer 87

- shows income is growing → the poorest groups do have more money but for the richer groups it’s growing at a faster rate → so have a larger proportion of the country’s income/wealth - for shares to be growing at this rate → doing more harm than good - causing more inequality → e.g. political inequality as rich have a larger say over what laws are passed

Answer 88

- Industrial Revolution - globalisation and international trade- accelerating inequality - globalisation has helped to improve living standards but has benefitted the rich much more - technological advancements - shifted towards high-skilled jobs (driven by technology) → left unskilled workers behind

Answer 89

- shows income is growing → the poorest groups do have more money but for the richer groups it’s growing at a faster rate → so have a larger proportion of the country’s income/wealth - for shares to be growing at this rate → doing more harm than good - causing more inequality → e.g. political inequality as rich have a larger say over what laws are passed

Answer 90

- of health gaps between social classes - Acheson Report (1998) found health gap widened since Black Report (1980) - 2010 Marmot Report found that people living in poorest neighbourhoods in the UK die 7 years earlier - avg diff between disabilities + disability free life expectancy = 17 years - still strong socio-economic factor in all patterns of diseases + ill-health (Bottero, 2005) - unskilled manual labour- takes 4 years off life expectancy on avg - 12 years off life expectancy if living in a homeless shelter - Carton area of Glasgow- life expectancy of 54 yrs for men (one of lowest in Western Europe)- poor area → people move in when they’re struggling - pper class live longer - more money = can afford better healthcare, eat healthier food (due to > leisure time) - many lower-class Americans live in food deserts- areas with less access to fresh foods - middle-class jobs → lower danger + lower stress = better health - link to inverse care law - - class gaps in health affected by money, education, income, neighbourhood, occupation - some jobs have healthcare schemes e.g. providing free private healthcare, health insurance - link to inverse care law - dangerous jobs → risk to health

Answer 91

- prime engine for social mobility, but meritocracy is undermined by existence of private schools: - reproduce privileges of economic elite, generation by generation - 7% privately educated occupations 45% Oxbridge places + other top unis - Sutton Trust (2011) = 3 years → 1 public schools reproduce privileges sent 211 students to Oxbridge, > 1,300 state schools sent 0 - m/c parents = buy into areas of good schools, have expertise/contacts/confidence dealing with professionals e.g. USA example: - public schools in US funded at local level → affluent neighbourhoods have better schools as receive more funding - better facilities, teachers, technology - upper class children > likely to attend private school + much > likely to go to college - less well-off children > likely to go to public schools + > likely to go to community college - social class passed on- e.g. less educational success passed on to childrne through being part of working-class Approaches to parenting- Annette Lareau research - social class determines what values are passed on to children - observed families from working-class + upper middle-class - upper midddle class = involved in students education/lives, e.g. checking homework tasks, organising play dates - working-class = less likely to be involved, due to less money/time, e.g. not being involved in young children’s social lives

Answer 92

- - original nation state system of capitalism organisation became faced with ‘stagflation’ in 1970s = rising prices + falling profits - capitalism became reorganised on a global scale- with the growth of TNCs - 4 mechanisms which capitalism reorganised itself transnationally: - promoting a new set of capital-labour relations based on labour flexibility + weakening trade unions - intensification of capitalism (through privatisation/commodification) + incorporating in regions that had previously operated outside of it e.g. China - creating global legal + regulatory structure to facilitate profit accumulation → e.g. creating WTO, creating free trade agreements - imposition of neoliberal structural adjustment programmes → any nations who couldn’t repay international loans- needed help from IMF/World Bank

Answer 93

- ew global elite, dominant class or inner circle - can have an influence on the state and they influence/invest in politics- especially in the USA - capital management companies = control over world’s wealth + where it gets invested - around 31 companies controlling around 83 trillion $ of wealth - global market isn’t just about economic powers of countries, global marketisation is happening all over world + is changing - class-in-itself and a class-for-itself - divided into 4 main factions: 1. owners + controllers of TNCs + their local affiliates (corporate) 2. globalising bureaucrats + politicians 3. globalising professionals 4. consumerist elites (merchants and media) - mainly situated in high income countries e.g. In Europe, USA, Japan - these countries are advantageous as many had colonial powers - grew richer through exploiting resources of colonies- enabling large companies to grow - more recently countries such as China have grown wealthier- newly emerging economies - larger economies + transnational class’ developing

Answer 94

- seek to protect their interests- global organisations e.g. World Bank, IMF, G20, world economic forum - allows TCCs to ‘off-shore’ → moving resources/practices/peoples/money from 1 national territory to another by hiding them within secrecy jurisdictions as they move through routes wholly/partly hidden from view - e.g. clothing brand manufacture in developing countries to take advantage of lower labour costs + leniently environmental regulations → savings can be reinvested - can tap into global talent pool + find specialised skills → elevate a company/their product - improved operational efficiency → higher productivity by streamlining processes - can be closer to raw materials e.g. car manufacturers - innovation of ideas + new ways of approaching business ideas - but a balance is needed- e.g. may cross cultural boundaries, limits job opportunities in the host country, job losses when the company moves production elsewhere

Answer 95

- also known as tax havens- since 1980s = astonishing growth - such as Switzerland, Monaco, Singapore - Urry = scale of offshored money grown from $11bn in 1968 to $6 trillion in 1998 to $21 trillion in 2010 (~1/3 annual world income) - almost all major TNCs have offshore accounts/subsidaries, > 1/2 world trade passes through secrecy jurisdictions, almost all ‘high net worth’ individuals possess offshore accounts - Panama Papers = law firm Mossack Fonseca had 11.5 million papers leaked → world leaders, business people + celebrities exposed for using offshore accounts for tax avoidance

Answer 96

- since Thatcher’s election (1979) - UK gov have embraced neoliberal ideas + since austerity programmers - ideas have affected class structure- been associate with growing economic inequality - growth in the very rich (TCC) - don’t pay UK tax on their foreign earnings - growth in insecure employment - e.g. not paying sick leave- cutting costs - decline work in ICT sectors - ICT operations have been offshored by TNCs - declining work in manufacturing + heavy industry sectors

Answer 97

- led to significant changes in demographic composition of classes because of increased migration - 2014 Labour force survey = ~ 2.9 mil people who were not British citizens working in the UK (1.7 mil not EU + 1.2 EU)

Answer 98

- NS-SEC + Great British Class Survey used to identify class structure in UK, Guy Standing = focused on Precariat which he argued is an important new social class produced by global capitalism - GBSC + Standing show more recent class scales, NS-SEC focuses on occupation so ignores inherited wealth - NS-SEC masks existence of super rich- economic position is generally owed > to wealth - income generated through certain forms of wealth e.g. stocks/savings/property - GBCS + Standing identify the rich in their class classifications though they use the term ‘elite’ - terms communicate that is isn’t simply wealth that defines this group - united by shared ideas/political interests and embrace neoliberal ideas - influence gained through donations + fact that majority of press is owned by wealth proprietors sympathetic to neoliberalism e.g. Barclay Brothers, Rupert Murdoch

Answer 99

The Traditional Middle Class -Nomis, 2015 = non-manual workers are 3/4 of UK workforce today → tertiary/service sector- e.g. education, finance- expanded over last 30 years -now use term ‘middle classes’ as it isn’t as uniform anymore → Roberts et al = since 1970s middle class has become fragmented- number of different groups -Savage et al = middle class now divided into ‘class fractions’ e.g. higher + lower professionals, higher + lower middle managers → leads to the different groups within the middle class

Answer 100

-professional workers = qualifications, long training →Savage = workers possess economic capital + cultural capital (passed onto children), also increasingly have social capital →have strong occupational associations e.g. British Medical Association → pursue interests of professionals to ensure high rewards, status and job security -managers = assets based on a particular skill within specific organisations- not easily transferable skills → work their way up through companies from an early age- social position is a result of experience + reputation → individualistic in character, < likely to have a common collective interest with fellow managers, < likely to have cultural/social capital → Savage = managers constantly under threat of losing jobs e.g. recession, downsizing → > likely to be downwardly mobile

Answer 101

-Standing = over last 20 years salariat has appeared- group of higher executives -run companies, spectacular salaries, shares worth millions -Adonis + Pollard = makes up ~ 15% middle class occupations → tend to live in gated communities, have private education, private health schemes -but sometimes argued it isn’t m/c → has > in common with unified wealth elite at top of class structure

Answer 102

The Technical Middle Class -Clark + Hoffman-Martinot = growth of technical elite of ‘wired workers’ → as productive as entire officers of routine non-manual workers- use technology, working behind computers -autonomy, paid well, work flexibly → engaged in problem solving activities -range of new occupations e.g. ‘infotech sector’ (such as web design, e-commerce, software development)

Answer 103

- Proletarianisation (Marxist term) = working conditions of many white-collar employees (such as those working in call centres) increasingly resemble those of factory workers - but significant minority of pop still involved in skilled/semi-skilled manual work (e.g. lorry drivers) → GBCS = traditional w/c, Standing = proletariat - Fulcher + Scott (1999) = until late 20th century w/c had strong sense of their social class position - all aspects of their lives were a product of their keen sense of w/c identity - e.g. gender roles, family life, political affiliation, leisure - Lockwood (1966) = many workers (esp in industrial areas) subscribed to a value system called ‘proletarian traditionalist’ - loyalty to each other - believed capitalist society is characterised by inequality + unfairness - saw society in terms of conflict- was employers vs them - This class identity is in decline e.g. through decline of manufacturing, unemployment from globalisation has undermined w/c communities - BritainThinks (2011) = 24% people identified as w/c, late 1980s = 67% - used focus groups who felt ‘disenfranchised, isolated and threatened on all sides’ - unrepresented by leading parties - reflected anti-immigrant views- immigration depressed wages - term ‘working class’ had been devalued through its association with ‘chavs’ (group from which participants were anxious to disassociate themselves)

Answer 104

- life of unstable employment - GBCS = bottom group- ‘most deprived group of all’ - Standing = they’re not quite at the bottom - believe the “lumpen precariat” is (underclass) - for both GBCS + Standing = precariat characterised by insecure/unstable labour e.g. part-time labour, crowd-labour - Also characterised by: - members lack secure occupational identity - engage in work outside paid labour to remain employable - often over-qualified for work they do - might temporarily rely on state benefits - Standing argues there is 3 groups: - those with few educational qualifications- dropped out of old w/c communities, feel deprived relative to a lost past real/imaginary - migrants + ethnic minorities - deprived of sense of belonging/feeling at home - those who feel deprived of a future despite their educational qualifications - has potential to become ‘class-for-itself’ + drive social change - share “powerful sense of status frustration + relative deprivation) - reject “old mainstream political traditions” - feel unrepresented in politics - Marxist criticism - Bailey, 2012 = those experiencing precarious employment are simply a segment of the w/c - Breman, 2013 = precariousness experienced by all classes below ‘ruling bloc’ so it isn’t a new class - Standing’s response = emphasises various ways in which precariat is distinctive in terms of its relationship to the processes of capitalist production + distribution → can become a class for itself

Answer 105

- underclass = exists below class structure e.g. in Britain/USA - but “there is little evidence to support the existence of a large, permanently excluded underclass in Britain” - Standing’s underclass (also known as as ‘lumpen precariat’) = consists of “sad people lingering in the streets, dying miserably” - GBCS team conciously avoided using term as it criticises the poor + disadvantaged - underclass are below the precariat - culture of poverty breeds itself- focus on themselves + their neighbourhood, invest in consumerism e.g. fake designer clothes, reject values of mainstream society, welfare dependent/high unemployment rates

Answer 106

- movement of people up/down social class hierarchy - modern society said to have open stratification systems because social mobility is possible - importance: - enables us to measure how open a society is - shows how far equality of opportunities + reveals dimensions of social inequalities - examine if society = meritocratic + whether positions = achieved from talents/abilities - represents how economic inequalities are legitimised in modern societies - influences formation of subcultures - 1944 Education Act = free 2ndary schooling marked transition to widespread acceptance to idea that society should be meritocratic

Answer 107

- Inter-generational social mobility = movement in social position across generations - Intra-generational social mobility = how a person moves up/down social ladder during their lifetime - Absolute mobility = when you move up/down in absolute terms (are you better/worse than before?) - Relative mobility = how you move up/down in social position compared to the rest of society

Answer 108

- large sample survey to examine position of sons in 1972 relative to their fathers - Hope Goldthorpe scale was used - found relatively high rates of both ‘long range of mobility’ + ‘absolute mobility’ - foun limited relative mobility (chances of moving between classes) - much greater numbers of people from w/c origins being upwardly mobile into service class compared with 1950s - but was movement but significant class boundaries remained - upward mobility > common among lower middle-class - higher education improves upward mobility but doesn’t entirely overcome class barriers - showed need educational reform due to need for equitable educational opportunities for all social groups - found some occupations were stepping stones for upward mobility- importance of occupational structures - inter generational: - parental class strongly impacts children’s outcomes- higher class maintain status (education/jobs), sig barriers for lower-class children - barriers to mobility: - economic inequalities = lim access to resources - educational disparities = quality + access of/to education - social networks = gatekeepers to social mobility - Gives 3 main reasons for increase in upward mobility: 1. changes to economy → therefore class structure 2. differences in fertility rate of classes → fertility in service sector had been too low to keep up with growth of service-sector jobs → sector had no choice but to recruit from other social classes 3. education = dramatically expanded since WW2 → Education Act 1944 + expansion of higher education Evaluation: - was a path-breaking piece of research - showing how social mobility is supported by education - was focused exclusively on males - later research includes female mobility - didn’t look at the very top of the class structure (the elite)- due to the limitations of the Hope-Goldthorpe scale which excludes wealth - later studies have suggested that rates of relative social mobility are declining - e.g. CEP research - cohort of men + women born in 1970- their earnings are more closely associated with their family incomes (40% chance income differences in childhood would be reflected in their early adult earnings) than the 1958 cohort were (30% chance) - but there was < data available when they grew up- lacks reliability - but doesn’t look at absolute mobility- relative only

Answer 109

- Roberts (2001) = recent school leaving cohorts have been 1st wave of young women in modern times whose mothers worked for > part of their adult lives + during their daughters/sons childhoods - encouraged daughters to aim for decent job - Wilkinson = end of century- ‘genderquake’ in female attitudes- increasingly prioritising employment careers > having children - 1991 British Household Panel Survey + General Household survey = absolutely mobility had increased significantly - but downward mobility likely to be experienced by women- due to disrupted careers

Answer 110

- ethnic minorities in Britain = experiencing increasing upward mobility - growth in clerical professionals, managerial employment - but still face sig barriers to enjoying levels of social mobility of their white British peers (relative mobility) - 1st gen members of ethnic minorities have < rates of social mobility due to racial discrimination (Platt, 2005) - 2nd + 3rd gen have experienced rates of upward mobility similar to white counterparts (Asian + African Caribbean) - but still face sig ethnic penalities in the labour market - > levels of educational attainment have not translated to > outcomes in employment - e.g. black male unemployment has remained persistently double whites - self-employment has provided important avenue for upward mobility for Asian minorities- marked by disproportionate clustering in the transport (taxi) sector for Pakistani men

Answer 111

- meritorcracy has become increasingly prominent - Saunders (NR sociologist) = ‘people in Britain are getting allocated to occupational class positions mainly according to meritocratic principles’ - critical that social mobility favours higher social classes - ability + effort more prevalent and influential - critical of use of educational attainment in measures of social mobility- don’t fully capture a person’s abilities → advocates for use of IQ instead → intelligence sig in determining ones potential to succeed - Criticisms of Saunders = underestimates impact of class + overestimates individual ability, use of IQ criticised as it overlooks social/economic barriers

Answer 112

-countries e.g. UK- more accurately referred to as consumer societies (not industrial societies) -because people base their identities on what they buy instead of what job they do -subcultures based on social class- replaced by lifestyle groups based on consumption -those able to consume = the ‘seduced’ -those who are not able to consume effectively = the ‘repressed’ -marketing makes people buy products due to their symbolic value- not intrinsic/reuse value

Answer 113

cultural stratification consumerism has become dominant features of post-modernity societies increasingly organised around differences related to consumption/lifestyle patterns status isn’t related to jobs people do anymore evidence in modern UK = people with better/more goods are seen as having higher status e.g. better cars, bigger houses inequality > complex in postmodern era society = more fragmented -> people are now organised by politics, education + cultural backgrounds due to fragmentation of traditional identities

Answer 114

Ulrich Beck- ‘Social class is a zombie category’ = meaningless but still existing created the term ‘risk society’ manner in which modern society organises in response to risk- people spend more time thinking about the future reflexive modernisation = modernisation where progress is achieved through reorganisation + reform modernity has turned upon itself- e.g. Chernobyl disaster- revolution of nuclear power turned into a disaster new risks are now more evenly distributed across the population- e.g. climate change as the elite can’t become immune from it widening transnational inequalities + individuals left to cope as national states can’t control global threats Cosmopolitanism concept that all of humanity could, and should, belong to a single community all people entitled to equal respect + consideration, no matter citizenship status etc getting beyond social interactions which limit possibilities of achieving a single community -> more inclusive forms of social relations

Answer 115

-some sociologists believe economic divisions are still of growing importance within society + the British class division is becoming more polarised -those experiencing material deprivation aren’t doing so due to lifestyle choices -‘Identity politics’ have increased as social movements have been focused on race, gender, sexuality + disability rather than class -types of social diversity (e.g. ethnicity) -> increasingly pluralised society -> class dif no longer stand out -Atkinson (2010) = people now interpret influence of class in individualistic ways (instead of by deprivation + inequality) -decline in social significance of class has coincided with an increase in economic inequality in the UK in recent decades