Strat Flashcards
Durkheim’s mechanical + organic solidarity And why did it change?
-Mechanical = small-scale societies, share same beliefs (religion), same social + economic activities
-Organic = collective conscience < important, individuals linked more to each other than to society as a whole
Changed due to modernisation (advancement of society + world e.g. industrialisation)
How does Craib criticise Durkheim?
Paradox of organic solidarity- division of labour -> members of society are > individuated + more dependent on society at same time- dependent on everyone else fulfilling their tasks
Durkheim’s penal vs restitutive law
- Less advanced societies = penal law- punishing to maintain social cohesion
- More advanced societies = restitutive law- “contracts”, to return things to normal state
Durkheim’s 3 reasons why state maintains social cohesion
Ensures justice + offers protection, preserves social unity out of diversity, ensures society becomes more consciously directed due to policy-making + law
How does Durkheim see society?
-System of interconnected institutions- have unique purposes + dependent to perform core functions
Durkheim + meritocracy
-Differences in rewards from occupations don’t undermine social solidarity as differences are based on ability -everyone competes for higher pay/status -> > motivation -lessens chance of class conflict- state regulates conflict between workers + employers
Parsons’ reasons for class conflict
-competition for occupational prestige = losers develop negative attitude- those who gain status > committed to shared norms + values and to society’s consensus. -organisation of division of labour = resistance from discipline + authority -tendency for powerful to exploit the weak
How does Parsons see class conflict + social stratification?
conflict = consequence of stratification- NOT the cause
-stratification is ranking system based on ability (based on respect, prestige, social honour)
-inequalities in possessions/power- come from status ranking
Davis + Moore- people need to be motivated for positions
-All jobs filled by those best able to perform them
-certain jobs = more important = more talent/training
-not everyone = talented / prepared to train
-must be rewards for functionally important jobs- e.g. access, increased status
How do Davis + Moore see stratification as a functional necessity?
-Jobs with high income don’t equal high prestige
-jobs = functionally important but easy to fill- don’t need high rewards
-important roles need high rewards to encourage people to
How does Platt respond to Davis + Moore’s ideas?
-Market will not successfully operate unless inequality = potential outcome
-enables people to feel that they deserved their status- creates incentives
How do the functionalists see stratification as inevitable and beneficial?
Durkheim:
-inevitable = result of societies transitioning to organic solidarity
-beneficial = people understand system is fair + people conform to value consensus of society
Parsons:
-inevitable = people ranked based on jobs/prestige- always class differences
-beneficial = helps in ‘stabilisation of social systems’
Davis + Moore:
-inevitable = based on role allocation- uses individual differences to rank them
-beneficial = encourages meritocracy -> people fill higher positions
Strengths of the functionalist theory
-shows how different institutions + structures work together to maintain social order
-influential in societies- hard work/ability only path to rewards- this view is reinforced through institutions
-focus on functions that social structures serve in maintaining equilibrium
Weaknesses of functionalist theory
-Tumin- some positions > important than they appear, education systems are unequal, training is not a “sacrifice”, money is not only motivator for people to train, stratification may be dysfunctional (elite groups enough power to dominate, people feel < important)
-Wilkinson + Pickett = more unequal society is, more unhappy it is e.g. higher suicide, higher crime
-Functionalists suggest systems = meritocratic + open- not concerned with ethnicity + disability, e.g. feminists criticise
-ignore myth of meritocracy
-some functionally important jobs aren;t generally highly rewarded + some high-status jobs aren’t always most talented
Marx + Engels- how did the Industrial Revolution change things?
Shifted ownership + control -> society into bourgeoisie + proletariat -> alienation for proletariat
Marx + Engels- historical materialism
Changes over time concerned with questions of material reality: how production is organised, who has things like food/money + who doesn’t
Marxist perspective- how is relationship between bourgeoisie and proletariat exploitative?
They depend on each other but proletariat make just enough to survive + bourgeoisie keep surplus
What is relation of production?
Relationship between workers and employers
How do Marxists argue that strat is inevitable in contemporary capitalist societies?
They are based around economic relationships
-economic behaviour = > significant in any society- through work that people produce means of survival are which all other behaviours are dependent
Marxist theory- modes of production
-Forces of production = things used to produce commodities e.g. land, machinery, buildings
-Relations of production = relationships which exist in a mode of production (employer-employee)
-capitalists own means of production. -people sell their ability to work = non-ownership
W/C = lack means of production so must sell their labour- surplus is created (difference in value of wage + value of product)
How does Gramsci say that the ruling class stay in power (Marxist theory)?
-Dominant set of ideas that are taken for granted in society- create norms + values
-Marx’s theory emphasises that classes each will fight to get what they want
-Owners try to make ideas/practises seem to be ‘common sense’ -> false conciousness as ideology spread by media + education
How does Marx explain alienation (Marxist theory)?
-Individuals like to see themselves in products they make
-No longer see themselves due to exploitation + overproduction
-exploitation -> alienation
link to real-life examples: Foxconn:
-workers never see final product of their work
-12 hour working days
-make $2 an hour- 60 hour weeks
-live in dorms- 7 other strangers
-now have suicide nets
How does Marx society that society would become equal (Marxist theory)?
-if means of production = owned by everyone
-workers develop ‘class conciousness’- realise oppression + overthrow in revolution -> new equal society -> communism
Strengths of Marxist theory
-Considers social inequalities existing today- explained through means of production
-social inequalities linked to social institutions- show how they can affect life
-links to real life example of economic inequality
Weaknesses of Marxist theory
-Underestimates robust power of capitalist- isn’t another viable economic system
-too negative of capitalist societies
-where communism has been applied- result = failed economic system (overestimates effectiveness of communism)
-economic determinism = too much emphasis on social class, economic system shapes society’s inequalities
-economic reductionism = states all social phenomena have an economic explanation
-analysis of class = too simplistic -> dismisses social class between bourgeoisie and proletariat
Neo-Marxism -> class conciousness has not occurred nor has a revolution (Frankfurt School of Neo-Marxism)
-reject notion that working-class revolution would happen- instead we move away from old class conflicts e.g. wages + hours of work- now on QOL issues + possession of cultural capital
-Marcuse (1964) -> capitalism = very successful in bedazzling working class with ‘false needs’ to buy the latest consumer goods (examples: subscriptions, stanley cup)
-media is a toxic influence which undermines people’s ability to think critically about social conditions of society
-Freidman = lifestyle of rich + famous is now modern opium of masses
-age of ignorance is stopping a revolution -> mass of society is less knowledgeable about political + economic structure of society (w/c = less united)
Neo-Marxism -> class conciousness has not occurred nor has a revolution (Frankfurt School of Neo-Marxism)- EVALUATION
Strength: attempt to explain + give example for non-example of revolution
Weakness: pessimistic + patronising (audiences > critical than neo-marxists give them credit for), difficult to distinguish between false + true needs
Neo-Marxism -> addressing the issue of the over-simplification of the class system (Frankfurt School of Neo-Marxism)
-2 class system argues that if you have to work- you’re part of the proletariat
-need to look at who has control over economic resources: control over investments/money capital, control over physical means of production- land/factories/offices, control over labour + power (bourgeoisie = all, proletariat = none, managers = some)
Wright’s class locations (Neo-Marxism = addressing the issue of the over-simplification of the class system)
-uses them to describe those who aren’t clearly capitalists nor workers (contradictory class)
-distinguished through 2 ways: relationship to authority within production + possession of skills/expertise
-ranks individuals based on their relationship to the means of production and the authority they have in their occupation and skills (creates multidimensional class structure explaining > diversity of class)
- e.g. those who own means of production can vary from traditional bourgeoisie to the self-employed (petty bourgeoisie)
Coghlan + Huggins, 2004 = Monopoly study
-Richest player won + occasionally lower class player could rise up an income level -> class mobility is hard
-Marxist idea that bourgeoisie gain ownership of property + used to keep getting richer
-proletariat = keep getting poorer- kept having to give money to bourgeoisie, also living in false class consciousness + unable to overthrow bourgeoisie for a revolution
How does Weber define stratification?
Societies stratified by social class, status and party
How does Weber define class + social class and what social classes does he identify?
Class = based on market position + purely economic
Social class = groups of classes linked by similar class of mobility (movement up/down social hierarchy)
4 social classes:
- privileged = through property or educational qualifications
- petit bourgeoisie = self-employed + managers
- lower middle class = white-collar workers + technicians
- working class = manual workers
How does Weber define market situation?
Some people can get higher incomes- sell abilities + skills in job market- have rare skills, talents, qualifications that are in demand
-> Society may value some skills + talents > than others e.g. footballers/celebrities
How does Weber define status + social closure?
Status = not purely based on wealth
Can affect life chances e.g. impacting health, family, experiences with CJS
Social closure = members of some status groups try to restrict membership to their groups by outsiders
- recognises that income + wealth confer status but suggested that a person can have wealth but little status
- suggests it is very rare that high status groups allow wealth alone to be enough to enter their status group
- allows dominant groups to hold onto their privileges by excluding others based on arbitrary criteria
How does Weber link class and life chances?
-Down the social classes, life chances decrease
e.g:
- privileged = more education, private healthcare, networking opportunities
- petty bourgeoisie = some property, maybe private education
- middle class = public healthcare, own home, high education
- working-class = state welfare, may be excluded from educational opportunities, public healthcare
Weber = elite self-recruitment
- those higher up social structure ensure their children fill up certain occupations
- e.g. 7% go to private schools but fill a disproportionate amount of certain jobs- e.g. 65% of judges, 57% lords, 44% actors
How does Weber define party?
- not only political parties but all the institutions involved in the distribution of political power including also pressure groups charities, clubs and societies
- Weber believes where there are >2 people, there will be a struggle for power
- amount of political power exercised by individuals in a party is often linked to their class + to their success
- however, they can be organised group trying to get -wort + influence society
Weber Evaluation
Strengths:
-To fully understand social inequality + conflict, it was important to consider status differences between people as well as their economic position e.g. status characteristics such as age, gender, ethnicity
-Avoids problem of economic determinism associated with Marxism because it adopts a multidimensional approach to the study of social inequality
Weaknesses:
-Does not easily explain those who have inherited position/wealth + do not sell their skills in their labour market. it also excludes individuals who are not employed such as housewives -e.g. housewives of wealthy businessman etc might have a lot of status and power but don’t have anything economically
-Marxists argue that focusing on multiple dimensions of inequality obscures/distracts the fundamental importance of class divisions within society
How do sex + gender differ?
- sex = anatomy of an individuals reproductive system
- gender = socially constructed- attributes associated with the genders
What is the patriarchy?
- systematic oppression of women
- men = positions of power + seen as ‘superior’
- social construct, but stems from biological differences
Radical Feminist argument
Firestone- biology = basis for women’s inequality
-women at times (e.g. during pregnancy) dependent on others -> men develop physical + psychological power + control so dominate
Equality only when physical dominance = eradicated
-Radical feminists believe until babies can be born outside the womb inequality will remain
Argue gender strat > important
Delphy = men exploit women within the family, blame the exploitation of women on men, women dominated through violence/its threat, rape, domestic violence
Radical Feminism- patriarchal terrorism + its evidence
Men are prepared to hold onto their power at any cost
Johnson- use violence against women to control + maintain dominance
Used to explain systematic use of actual violence, isolation, economic subordination
Domestic violence = evidence:
-900 women killed by men in England/Wales (last 6 years)
-week was killed by a male partner/ex-partner
- minimum of £427 million needed to be invested per year to fund specialist domestic abuse services for women + their children across England
What is the radical feminist solution?
-Response to male oppression + violence directed towards women
-Some feminists advocated for separatism in form of lesbianism to liberate from male oppression
-remains controversial among other feminists
Radical Feminist Evaluation
-ignores other forms of inequality such as class + ethnicity
-Ortner (1974) = culture is the basis of differentiation between the sexes, it is always valued more highly than biology + is controlled by men, whereas women are see. as being closer to nature because they give birth
-Rosaldo (1974) = discusses biological inequality but from a domestic standpoint- most power lies in the public sphere (socialising, work life, debates about public policy). women < likely to join these conversations because they are are > likely confined to house looking after children
-Mead (1935) = differences in tribes in New Guinea
- differences = entirely social, not based on sex
- 1 tribe → women = traders, men stayed in domestic sphere + reared children
- different tribes raised children to have expectations distinct from those in neighbouring tribes + different from norms in USA + Europe
- gender = learned response, X an innate difference
What happened in each wave of feminism?
1st (1850s-1940s) = legal rights e.g. voting, employment limited to factories/domestic work, very few rights in marriage, 1928 = full suffrage, wartime experience
2nd (1960s-1980s) = increase equality for > than voting, contraceptive pill (1961), Sex Discrimination Act (1975), issues e.g. domestic violence + marital rape, changes in custody/divorce law, endangered women’s shelters
3rd (1990s) = began to focus on intersectionality (movement criticised for focus on white, m/c women- ignored diverse experience), redefined women/girls as assertive + powerful
4th (2008-) = justice, oppositions to sexual harassment + violence against women (street/workplace harassment, rape culture)
Marxist Feminism:
-Benson
-evidence
-argument
Benson (1972) = women benefit capitalism 2 ways: reproduce next gen of workers, provide free domestic labour (makes male workers more effective)
e.g. 2012 = laundry services worth £97.2bn
women in UK spend 2x > doing housework than men
Capitalism exploits males + females -> women > to have children + work part-time -> low paid + part-time
Women’s exploitation ends when capitalism -> communism
Socialist Feminists (1970s onwards)
-Believe class plays a role + don’t believe that gender inequality is possible under capitalism
-Want to work with men
Engels (1972):
- in the past people lived in promiscuous hordes where sexual relationships were not fixed + property from mother → child
-men became more determined to pass their property onto their own offspring, they began to demand fidelity from their womenfolk → monogamous marriage + power of men over women
Coontz + Henderson (1986) = attempted to link Engels theory with other anthropological material, suggesting that patriarchy was more likely to occur in societies that were patraruchal rather than matriarchal
◦ women moved to live with husband’s family- she was > likely to lose control over goods produced → men become more powerful
Evaluation of Marxist + Socialist Feminists
-Liberal fem = it relies on a revolution -> utopian + unrealistic
-Radical fem = too much emphasis on capitalism being ultimate source of stratification
-only looks at gender inequality
-ignores female choice to start a family
Liberal Feminism overview
-Achieving liberal + political rights equal to those of men
-Society discriminates against women- belief that women are < intellectually + physically capable than men
-Giving women freedom to exercise personal choices- gov. shouldn’t impede their progress
-Support the emancipation of men
Liberal Feminism- Ann Oakley (1974)
-Gender roles = socially constructed- gender role socialisation in family -> contributes to reinforcing gender role expectations (fuels gender inequalities)
-Through manipulation + canalisation (teach expected norms/values)
-Manipulation = encouragement of behaviour that is seen as being gender appropriate
-Canalisation = channeling of children towards toys + activities that are seen as appropriate for their gender
-learn gender identity through internalising behaviour- developed through 2ndary socialisation agents
Criticism = temporal validity -> may not be as valid today e.g. more family diversity + gender identities are no longer fixed (no longer clear gender norms)
Liberal Feminism- Sue Lees + Sue Sharpe
Education helps girls to get economic power through careers as well as political power -> impact of patriarchal strat is in decline
What do liberal feminists see as the source of inequality?
Gender role socialisation but is reinforced by political + legal factors
Liberal Feminists- horizontal + vertical inequality
Horizontal inequality = refers to occupations + differences in jobs between gender
-e.g. 2016 = women only 18% in ICT Professional Occupations
Vertical inequality = levels of jobs + pay, men still take up higher paid jobs + > likely to take up leadership positions
-women concentrated at lower levels
Liberal Feminist Evaluation
-Evidence from pay gaps etc
—- 2016 = 18%, 2022 = 8.3% (has been progress, but there hasn’t been enough progress)
-Some argue it’s too optimistic
-Radical feminists = more revolutionary change needs to happen
Policies reducing gender inequality
-1970 Equal Pay Act- raised from campaign from females at Ford Motors in Dagenham
-Sex Discrimination Act 1975
-1983 Equal Pay regulations- equal pay for work of = value
Gendered pay gap statistics
-Full-time work only = 17.4% -> 9.4% (since 1980)
-Full-time + part-time = 27.7% -> 19.1%
Gender differences in part-time work
-Unpaid work- men > involved with childcare but primary responsibility still with women
-38% of women with dependent children are in part-time work
-7% of men with dependent children are in part-time work
-Durrant, 2009 = women with/without children work 15 hours on household chores, men spend 5 hours
Changes in women’s employment- Grunt + Nixon (2015)
-Biggest change in occupational activity in 20th century was increased rate of employment for married women + mothers
- < 1/10 women in employment at start of 20th century -> 74% by 2009
-2011 employment for mothers had grown to match overall female employment at 67%
How are gender + employment figures not what they seem?
-2013: men = 53%, women 47% of labour force
-figures mask sig dif in rates of full time + part time employment
-men smaller % of part-time employment compared to women
-Women’s Business Council, 2012 = 5.85 mil women working part-time, only 2.1 million men
Explanation of the gender pay gap
- difference in pay = continued existence of differences in kinds of level of work done by men + women
- Catherin Hakim (1979) - occupational segregation → 2 types:
- horizontal segregation = men + women concentrated in different jobs in dif sectors of economy
- public sector = women in health/social work + education (79% + 73% (2006))
- private sector = women in clerical, administrative, retail + personal services, men found in skilled manual + upper professional sectors (EOC, 2006)
- evidence of horizontal segregation decreasing = < men doing traditional work- primary (e.g. coal mining) + secondary (e.g. car manufacturing) sectors, + increasing female educational success- entering male dominated work (e.g. Women + Work Commission, 2005 = 75% pharmacists = women)
- vertical segregation = women occupy the lower levels of pay + status in particular jobs
- glass ceiling = situation in which in promotion appears to be possible, but restrictions/discrimination creates barriers that prevent it
- BBC, 2012 = < 1/3 of senior position across 11 key sectors held by women
- horizontal segregation = men + women concentrated in different jobs in dif sectors of economy
Functionalist explanation of gender stratification in employment
- difference due to biology- instrumnetal role of males + expressive role of females
- Men > fitted to go out + physically/mentally work hard to provide economic support → women best in domestic sphere
- roles considered = natural through proper socialisation- boys learn to be men ~= girls learn to be women
Human capital explanation of gender stratification in employment
- pay gap reflects that men have > human capital than women- > orientation toward paid work
- women = less committed- > likely to take career breaks / go into part-time work
- men able to build up skills, qualifications, experience → in receipt of on-the-job training + employment < likely to be disrupted by family commitments
- women = less committed- > likely to take career breaks / go into part-time work
How does gender stratification in work affect life chances?
- men have more control decision making → women have less control / control over less important things
- men control resources- e.g. allowance system, even in pooling they have control over how money is used
- e.g. Edgell (1980) - m/c couples- found:
- men decisions over = moving house, finance, car
- women decisions over = interior decorations, food/domestic spending, children’s clothes
- women have less chance at social mobility
Dual labour market theory- Barron + Norris (1976)
- gender inequality + stereotypes → employment of men + women in different segments of the labour market characterised by various incomes
- primary sector = secure, well-paid jobs with good prospects
- secondary sector = poor pay, insecurity + no ladder of promotion
- secondary more likely to be concentrated with women → affects life chances
- Reasons for this:
- women’s ‘unsuitability’
- Studies by West and Zimmerman + Hartnett (employers subscribed to myths + - stereotypes about female workers):
- male workers X like working for female manager
- women < dependable - time off for family commitments
- women stop work to marry + have children
- children psychologically damaged by mothers spending long periods of time at work
- Studies by West and Zimmerman + Hartnett (employers subscribed to myths + - stereotypes about female workers):
- disrupted career development
- social pressure to have family → women take extensive time out- lack experience + miss out on promotion
- Abbott + Wallace = husbands career > important → wife has to interrupt her career is husbands career requires moving
- weak legal + political framework supporting women
- legislation failed to protect women’s employment rights e.g. Coussins = Sex discrimination act doesn’t apply to many areas of employment
- gov < to promote free/cheap nursery care
- changes in position of part-time workers - shown men have some responsibility in child-rearing
- e.g. paid leave for either partner - 2015 = coups can take Shared Paternal Leave up to 50 weeks- 37 weeks pay
- legislation failed to protect women’s employment rights e.g. Coussins = Sex discrimination act doesn’t apply to many areas of employment
- women’s ‘unsuitability’
- social mobility < for women = likely to remain in secondary sector of labour market- limited promotional opportunities
- gender stratification in employment affects women in the home + in the world of employment
Hakim (2000)- Preference theory
- examined gender + work from across the world
- reliable contraception, equal opportunities legislation, expansion of white collar + part-time → increase lifestyle choices given to women
- 20% women = home-centred
- 60% women = adaptive = combining family + work
- 20% women = work-centred
Feminist view on gender stratification in employment
- Liberal Feminists
- it is due to gender role socialisation making it seem that women are less intellectually capable than men → masculine dominance- reinforces vertical/horizontal segregation
- has been a movement due to policy- e.g. equal pay, sex discrimination act
- Marxist Feminists
- due to capitalist system → women make up cheap domestic labour - have to be concentrated at the bottom/secondary sectors
- part of reserve army of labour- vulnerable in recessions- disposable part of workforce
Gender stratification in education
- educational achievement girls + boys both improved- still differences
- 1980s = concern = girls underachievement, 1990s = girls began to outperform
- females do different subjects influencing careers e.g. choosing arts + humanities
- little evidence to support the general better results of girls results in improved paid employment opportunities- women = < likely with similar qualifications to achieve success in paid employment
- men predominantly hold positions of powerazzzz
Reasons for gender stratification in education
Girls achievement:
-rise of feminism
-changing employment
-changing families
-changing ambitions
Gender and subject choice:
-National Curriculum, post-16 education, vocational courses
-Reasons = early socialisation, gender identity + peer pressure, gender domains, gendered subject image, gendered careers
Boys underachievement:
-laddish subcultures
-feminisation of schooling
-literacy
-globalisation
Gender stratification + health facts
Men:
-Higher death rates
-4 years lower life expectancy
- > likely to die of suicide, heart disease + cancer
Women:
- > likely to spend > years in poor health / with a disability
-suffer > mental illness
-higher users of healthcare services than men
Gender stratification + health- life expectancy
- men = 79.5
- women = 82.5
- by 2035: men = 83, women = 87
- 2/3 deaths occur before 65 years = men
- 58% people surviving > 65 years = female
Are women healthier than men?
- men don’t seem to experience as much ill health as women (BUT may not access services/report illness)
- women = major users of health services + spend > years in poor health with disability
- women over 16 = 50% visit doctor
- report more head + stomach aches, high blood pressure, weight problems
- consume more prescription (anti-depressants) / non-prescription drugs
- visit doctors for conditions such as insomnia, depression
Explanations Gender inequality based on health
-Feminine traits
-Masculine traits
-Motherhood
-risk behaviour
-domestic violence
-economic disadvantage
Why do women suffer more sickness?
-Stress
-Poverty
-Socialisation
-Different diagnosis
Gender + premature death
-Female mortality = rarer -> women’s weaker ties with labour market + socio-economic class based occupations
-Black Report 1980 = estimated premature death rate amongst people in disadvantaged social classes was 2.5x higher than those in advantaged classes
Race vs ethnicity
Race = physical characteristics of an individual
Ethnicity = describes a group of people who share a common + distinctive culture, religion, language, history
2011 Census data- ethnicity
-86% of population = White British (Wales, North East + South West)
-parts of London e.g. Newham- figure falls to 49%
-London remains 60% white British (areas such as Kensington + Chelsea = higher)
-being part of ethnic minority linked to social exclusion + few advantages
-but depends on individual’s own assessment of ethnicity -> discrepancies may occur
2021 Census data- ethnicity
Ethnic minorities increased since 2011 e.g. Asian/Asian British/Asian Welsh increased from 7.5% -> 9.3%
+ White British 86% -> 81%
Pilkington’s 2 main phases of immigration since WW2
- 1st- 1940s-1970s = primary migration of people from former colonies in Caribbean + Indian subcontinent
- 2nd- 1980s onwards = 3 categories- secondary migration of dependents (of those who came in the first place), asylum seekers, from EU countries (due to expansion)
How is ethnicity a construct?
1991 Census offered a choice of 9 categories, 2011 Census offered a choice of 18 categories
Genetic theories (ethnicity)
- most focus to ethnicity based around genes + biology- started with Darwin’s theory of evolution
- Spencer (1996) = different human groups have developed in isolation + therefore have distinct differences, also believes white race is inherently superior → echoes beliefs of British Empire (now has been discredited)
Jones criticism of genetic theories (ethnicity)
- Jones (1994)- against ideas mentioned
- all humans capable of interbreeding- genetic difference between racial groups no > than range of genetic differences within other differentiated groups of society
- Global terms = white European groups = minority, but = majority in UK
- contemporary UK ethnicity plays major part in stratification = 15% of total pop - but absent from positions of power, disproportionately represented in prison/unemployed/undereducated
Functionalist view on ethnic difference
-Ethnic equalities in relation to a common value system- believe differences + inequalities are temporary
-Parsons (1966) - argued that the ‘American Negro’ was a 2nd class citizen as skin colour symbolised status- over time this common value would change + minority ethnic groups able to play full role in meritocratic system
-Minority needs to culturally, socially + economically assimilate
New Right Realism theory on ethnic difference
-Believe in encouraging/enforcing assimilation of ethnic minorities e.g. learning English should be compulsory
Murray (1984)
-African-Americans constitute a black underclass defined by their cultural attitudes (e.g. unwillingness to work, criminality, irresponsible parenting)
(still remains popular view among right wing but these ideas now create conflict)
Host-Immigrant model theory on ethnic difference
Patterson:
-Cultural differences (language, quals, customs) disadvantages the immigrant group in a host society
-disadvantage will disappear as immigrant group is assimilated into host society (ethnic group absorbed -> community by adapting to origin’s population culture)
-Culture clash between W. Indians (boisterous/noisy) + English hosts (private/quiet) - hosts weren’t racist, just unsure how to act
Marxist theory on ethnic difference
Cox (1948):
-racial differences/racism are creation of economic system (capitalism) -> divisions + justifies pay/treating some groups < well than others (slavery is an example)
-Ethnic minorities are part of reserve army of labour + also used to divide w/c opinion (allows for scapegoating)
Miles (1980):
-ethnic minorities part of racialised class fractions (occupy same class structure but treated dif. due to ethnicity)
-racism prevents them being accepted by white m/c
Gilroy (1987) = “There ain’t no Black in the Union Jack” - seen as culturally dif
Weberian theory on ethnic difference
-Ethnic groups = negatively privileged status groups -> lower status = affects their market situation/class -> social closure keeps them out of authority positions
-Concrete ceiling = minority groups placed in 2ndary labour market -> weaker life chances than white colleagues
-Racism = ethnic minorities in separate class position under w/c (Rex (1979)- class it black underclass (economically disadvantaged- marginalised + < power))
Postmodernist theory on ethnic difference
-Racism + ethnicity affects ethnic groups differently
-Superdiversity = globalisation + consumption patterns -> eroding ethnic identities
-Not all ethnic groups (or ind within) experiences same (dis)advantages
-Hybrid identities created due to mixing of identities + therefore culture created by choice (X imposed at birth)
-therefore Modood = critical of portrayal of ethnic minority groups as victims
