Methods in Context

Question 1

Lab experiments + teacher expectations

Answer 1

e.g. Harvey + Slatin- sample of 96 teachers- show 18 photos of children from different social class backgrounds
-lower-class children rated < favourably, esp by > experienced teachers
-based on similarities with students they had taught- used labels to pre-judge potential

Question 2

Ethical problems with lab experiments

Answer 2

-with no real pupils have < ethical issues
-some have used real pupils- raises ethical concerns- > problems of deception, lack of informed consent + psychological damage- which young people are > vulnerable to -> this is why lab ex. limited in educational research

Question 3

Lab experiments- narrow focus

Answer 3

-Only examines 1 specific aspect- allows research to isolate/examine this variable thoroughly
-but not seen within wider processes e.g. teacher ex. not seen within labelling/self-fulfilling prophecy

Question 4

Lab experiments- practical problems

Answer 4

-schools = complex institutions with a lot of impacting variables- impossible to identify/control all those with influence
-role of large-scale social factors/processes can’t be studied in small-scale labs

Question 5

Lab experiments- artificiality

Answer 5

Tells us little about real world of education e.g. Harvey + Slatin used photos when real expectations will be based on > than just appearance

Question 6

Field experiments- ethical problems

Answer 6

-major ethical problems e.g. not all students benefit- held back educationally due to < attention
-due to legal duty of care in schools can’t really be carried out now
-requires deception- best when those involved = unaware -> e.g. would have been impossible to plant expectations in teachers heads if they had known- Rosenthal + Jacobson study

Question 7

Field Experiments- Reliability

Answer 7

-Rosenthal + Jacobson = simple research design -> easy to repeat
-but differences in school classes e.g. age/teaching style means the original can’t be replicated exactly

Question 8

Field experiments- validity

Answer 8

Claimed expectations passed on through interactions but had no data to support- not backed up by later studies

Question 9

Field experiments- broader focus

Answer 9

-Examines > 1 element, e.g. labelling -> teacher expectations -> effect on pupils
-can also be longitudinal- identify trends over time

Question 10

Questionnaires- operationalisation of concepts

Answer 10

-difficult when giving questionnaires to pupils- lower grasp of abstract concepts e.g. ‘cultural capital’ - change to language children understand
-answers based on misunderstandings
-danger have to oversimplify concepts- cease to have sociological value

Question 11

Questionnaires- samples and sampling frames

Answer 11

-lists provide accurate sampling frames -> representative sample
-ready-made opportunity samples e.g. in classes - but may not reflect researcher’s interests or may be refused access
-need permission to distribute- easy to do through school
-younger children open to peer pressure- discuss responses
-overcome status differences between researcher + children but is formal document- find off-putting

Question 12

Questionnaires- access + response rate

Answer 12

-reluctance to allow distribution of questionnaires e.g. objection to topic
-higher response rates in schools- pressure from authority to complete - can authorise time to complete - more representative data
-teachers/students used to completing questionnaires (but teachers may be too busy)

Question 13

Questionnaires- practical issues

Answer 13

-large quantities of basic data- can correlate factors e.g. achievement/attendance with things like class size
-data collected = limited/superficial- correlations but not explanations
-unsuitable for those who can’t read well e.g. young children
-need to be brief- children = short attention span- limits info
-low value- children = narrower life experiences/lower recall
-delivered class by class = becomes known- affects responses -> invalid
-teachers could recognise aims/intentions or may not cooperate if too lengthy

Question 14

Questionnaires- anonymity and detachment

Answer 14

-useful when researching sensitive issues- anonymity is useful -> higher response rates + reveal info
-reassurance that anonymity will be safeguarded- difficult to achieve with little personal contact with researcher
-interpretivists = can’t develop rapport- < likely to give full/honest responses
-may equate questionnaires with school/teacher authority- anti-school subcultures may refuse/not complete seriously
-easy to make anonymous- give honest attitudes to sensitive questions

Question 15

Interviews- practical issues

Answer 15

• < developed linguistic + intellectual skills e.g. < articulate, don’t understand questions/abstract concepts -> makes unstructured interviews = > suitable
  -children = can’t keep to point, focus on different details/logic -> researcher needs > skills - > costs (but have better verbal skills than literacy skills)
  -content of interviews may spread- influence later responses decreasing validity
  -location = problematic -> school represents higher authority
  -unstructured = time constraints- parents are busy

Question 16

Interviews- ethical issues

Answer 16

-Young children being unsettled by the interview- need to take care not to distress them

Question 17

Interviews- reliability and validity

Answer 17

-Structured = reliable- standardised (exactly same way)
—but not valid- unlikely to respond favourably to a formal style- like a teacher
-Bentley = maintained a relaxed atmosphere e.g. nodding, smiling, eye contact
—but = personal style- can’t be standardised

Question 18

Interviews- Access and Response Rate

Answer 18

-hierarchal institutions
—Powney + Watts = lower down the interviewee is, > approval obtained
-reluctance if it causes disruption/objection to topic- but also problems outside school hours
-parent permission required- likelihood varies based on topic- Field = study of pupils’ experience of sex/health education had a high refusal rate of 29% mainly due to X consent
-obtains official support- hierarchal nature can work in favour- response rates > if under head’s instruction

Question 19

Interviews- the interviewer as a ‘teacher in disguise’

Answer 19

-power/status inequalities affect outcomes e.g. less articulate impacts validity
-interviewers may be seen as authority figures- even > likely in educational research- seek to win the interviewer’s approval
-pupils accustomed to adults knowing better- > likely to change answer when question repeated
-w/c parents may perceive interviewer as having > status- questions seen as patronising/intrusive
-interview = social interaction

Question 20

Interviews- improving validity with pupils

Answer 20

Greene + Hogan (2005)- interviewers should:
-use open-ended questions
-not interrupt
-tolerate long pauses
-avoid repeating questions
-recognise children are impressionable- avoid asking leading questions

—unstructured = > suitable- establishes rapport -> more valid data

Question 21

Interviews- group interviews with pupils

Answer 21

-young people = influenced by peer pressure -> conform to expectations -> < validity
-free-flowing nature -> impossible to standardise -> < reliability
-suitable for pupils
—safe peer env + replicate classroom settings
—peer support decreases power imbalance in one-on-one interviews
-can reveal interactions between pupils- but could give pressure to conform to group’s values §

Question 22

Structured observation- practical issues

Answer 22

-Flanders system of interaction analysis categories (FIAC) - quantitatively measure pupil-pupil + pupil-teacher interaction -
—easily converted in quantitative data e.g. how many times behaviour occurs
——relatively simple- quick/cheap/less training

Question 23

Structured observation- reliability

Answer 23

-easily replicated- e.g. FIAC = 10 categories -> easy to replicate by other researchers
-quantitative = easy to compare

Question 24

Structured observations- validity

Answer 24

-interpretivists criticise for lack of validity
-Delamont = counting/classifying classroom behaviour ignores meanings pupils/teachers attach to it

Question 25

Unstructured observations- practical issues

Answer 25

-time-consuming to observe e.g. Eggleston (1976)- need > 3 months to set up cover role for observation -permission may be easier -personal characteristics impact e.g. ethnicity may attract negative responses from other teachers -observing interactions limited by timetable, holidays, health + safety legislation -difficult to find privacy to record- e.g. Hammersley = covertly note down staff room conversations/jotted down once left staff room- may have been mistakes

Question 26

Unstructured observation- ethical issues

Answer 26

-covert approach isn’t appropriate- > vulnerability + can’t give informed consent- has to be overt -Delamont: every observer sees/hears things that could get pupils into trouble -> ‘guilty knowledge’ - have to report but may breach trust/no longer confide —care to protect identities- importance in marketised education system where good public image is important to success

Question 27

Unstructured observations- validity

Answer 27

-strong in validity + give understanding of social actors -power difference = adult researcher may cause children to present a false image -> undermines validity -> but can gain acceptance to overcome this -language may be different to researcher’s- can’t be certain they understand meanings

Question 28

Unstructured observations- the Hawthorne Effect

Answer 28

-difficult to do covert observation- few ‘cover’ roles- are much older so stand out -has to be overt -> Hawthorne Effect- presence affects normal behaviour

Question 29

Unstructured observations- representativeness

Answer 29

-large scale of education system -but most observations = small num pupils in a single school - time to become familiar with setting/gain trust/carry out ob —observing schools = unlikely to produce representative data -Hammersley = staffroom data open to sample bias- associated largely with 1 group of teachers- < representative

Question 30

Unstructured observations- reliability

Answer 30

-lack reliability = data recording often unsystematic + hard to replicate -personal characteristics of different observers evoke differing responses

Question 31

Official statistics- practical issues

Answer 31

-saves time/money- gov collects on all schools -make comparisons between groups + over time -stats used to monitor effectiveness of policies -but may not be same stats needed - e.g. state doesn’t collect stats on social class, only FSM —not all entitled to FSM = w/c, not all w/c = entitled -definitions of key concepts may differ

Question 32

Official statistics- representativeness

Answer 32

-some official stats- highly representative (cover all pupils, schools census) -generally very reliable- standard defs/categories for collection- replicated from yr to yr -but they can change these (can’t draw comparisons) —e.g. 1988 = Conservatives introduced league tables purely on exam results, 2006 = Labour added Contextual Value Added (CVA)

Question 33

Official statistics- validity

Answer 33

-interpretivists- stats = socially constructed -e.g. schools manipulate attendance stats- pressure to appear in best possible light —undermines validity

Question 34

Documents- practical issues

Answer 34

-easily accessible due to gov emphasis on parental choice -Gillborn = accessed school statements, local authority anti-racism guidelines, staff meeting’s minutes -Gewirtz et al = brochures/prospectuses - free info about how schools present in ‘marketplace’ -Personal documents = harder to access -some educational documents = confidential

Question 35

Documents- ethical issues

Answer 35

-public documents -> permission = not required- placed in public domain -personal documents- hard to gain informed consent

Question 36

Documents- representativeness

Answer 36

-some documents = legally required -> representative across whole country —but not all may be documented e.g. racist incidents -personal documents = < representative

Question 37

Documents- reliability

Answer 37

-many public ones produced in systematic format -> direct comparisons -deliberate falsifications/accidental mistakes- < reliability -some can be used in ways to replicate- e.g. Lobban = 179 stories from 6 schemes, used same sets of categories/counting images in each category to discover gender stereotypes -> future researchers can apply to create comparative data

Question 38

Documents- validity

Answer 38

-documents can provide insights into teachers/pupils meanings = high validity —Hey = changed method to examining notes to find meanings- offered valuable insights as they are spontaneous expressions -but all documents are open to different interpretations- e.g. Hey = collected notes which the girls may have written with her in mind

Question 39

3 components of education as a research context

Answer 39

-themes = who/where you’re researching, e.g. pupils/teachers/parents/schools/claassrooms -methods = research methods, e.g. questionnaires, observations etc -study = issue that you’re researching, e.g. achievement, labelling, parental involvement etc

Question 40

Researching pupils- power and status

Answer 40

-young people have < power/status- don’t want to challenge adults -hierarchal institutions- teachers influence which pupils picked e.g. present good image -formal research methods = reinforce power differences -have to overcome e.g. group interviews -attitudes to differences affect how they respond- e.g. < likely to cooperate if they resent teacher’s power

Question 41

Researching pupils- ability + understanding

Answer 41

-vocab, self-expression, confidence is < -researching abstract ideas- care in wording questions -hard to gain informed consent- can’t explain nature of research in simple language -use language in different ways + need > time to understand - < developed memories- can’t recall relevant material in detail -pupils aren’t homogenous group- variations affect language used -> match gender/ethnicity to researcher

Question 42

Researching pupils- vulnerability and ethical issues

Answer 42

- > vulnerable to physical/psychological harm —should consider if their participation is actually necessary -informed consent of parents/teachers + pupils- but may not be mature enough to decide -child protection = very important -consider stress from research -> questioning children for ages = inappropriate -gatekeepers = control access -> > difficult for sustained research

Question 43

Researching pupils- laws and guidelines

Answer 43

-child protection laws = controls adults in schools- need a DBS -organisations = special codes of practice for researching- takes British Sociological Association’s guidelines further -easy to find research group = compulsory to go to school

Question 44

Researching teachers- power and status

Answer 44

-teachers = > power status (experience/responsibility) + have legal responsibilities/duty of care -nature of classroom reinforces power- seen as ‘my classroom’ -> researcher = trespasser -researcher needs a cover, e.g. as supply teacher- but -> lower status

Question 45

Researching teachers- impression management

Answer 45

-willing to observations = accustomed e.g. Ofsted -‘put on an act’ -> Goffman = impression management means have to get behind public face teachers put on- different front stage vs back stage but problems with back stage (e.g. in staffroom a newcomer will be treated with suspicion) -reluctance to answer honestly- impact on career prospects -> overcome using observational methods instead direct questions -heads select which teachers = involved -> may not be representative

Question 46

Researching classrooms- setting

Answer 46

-closed, social setting -> physical/social boundaries -highly controlled + high surveillance -> behaviour may not be true feelings/thoughts- conceal feelings in interactions -simple + small social settings- only 2 social roles -> easy to observe/analyse

Question 47

Researching classrooms- gatekeepers

Answer 47

-access = controlled -> teachers, heads, laws -> becomes difficult to access

Question 48

Researching classrooms- peer groups

Answer 48

-insecurities mean > sensitive to peer pressure- affects responses -supervise pupils (e.g. in questionnaires)- affects responses to being researched -group interviews = dominant attitudes hide individuals’ true attitudes

Question 49

Researching schools- school’s data

Answer 49

-a lot of 2ndary data e.g. choices, results, Ofsted, + personal documents -> ‘data-rich’ (but could be confidential) -may manipulate to present positive image -official stats should be treated with care -> e.g. changing curriculum to > results

Question 50

Researching schools- the law

Answer 50

-creates ‘captive population’ - knows where everyone should be, but research interferes with school’s function -restricted access due to legal duty of care

Question 51

Researching schools- gatekeepers

Answer 51

-power to refuse access e.g. if interfering/undermining authority -some situations may be off-limits e.g. heads interviews with parents

Question 52

Researching schools- organisation

Answer 52

-researchers may seen as part of hierarchy e.g. as a teacher -single-sex schools = researcher may be dif gender -highly organised institutions- affects when/how study can be carried out e.g. exam periods -size/complexity schools -> difficulties e.g. may take months to work out how it works

Question 53

Researching parents

Answer 53

-influence what goes on e.g. consumers/involvement -not single homogenous group- affects willingness e.g. pro-school/m-c -> > likely -parental permission required- depends on sensitivity of research- < likely to consent -engage in impression management- exaggerate involvement - > valid -few opportunities to observe = as are in home —schools don’t release info to researcher- but may send it home with pupils - but won’t guarantee high response rate

Question 54

Researcher’s own experience of education

Answer 54

-can dull experience of how dif education is to other social settings- places may seen ‘natural’ -likely to have been quite successful in education- hard to empathise with underachievement/anti-school subcultures -education = prominent political issue -> different groups hold opinions about what should happen -> investigations can become part of political/media debate