Families and Households Flashcards
Murdock’s 4 functions of the nuclear family (1949)
- Emotional gratification = ensures people’s happiness
- Reproduction = benefits individual members + society
- Meeting economic needs = ensures everyone has what they need, improves economy
- Socialisation of children = children learn how to behave/act in society
Parsons: 2 functions of nuclear family
- Socialisation of children
- Stabilisation of adult personalities
Parsons functionslist theory on domestic division of labour
Instrumental role (male) = success at work, financially supporting, breadwinner
Expressive role (female) = socialisation of children, emotional needs, homemaker
Based on biological differences
Parsons evaluation
Strength = research supports these roles
Weaknesses = outdated, creates stereotypes, deterministic
Bott (1987) division of labour roles
Segregated conjugal roles = separate roles, male breadwinner, female homemaker, leisure time spent separately
Joint conjugal roles = couple shares household tasks, leisure time spent together
Willmott + Young (1960 + 1973) views on divisions within couples
1960:
Pattern of segregated roles in Bethnal Green -> men worked + went to pub, women at home + time with female relatives
1973:
March of progress view
Trend towards the ‘symmetrical family’ - women now working, men = housework, spend leisure time together
See the rise of this due to changes in women’s position, geographical mobility, new technology, increased living standards
Oakley’s view on the march of progress view
Criticises + rejects it
Men only do around one task a week so aren’t actually doing more
Two types of money sharing system within couples
Allowance system = wives get given allowance, have to budget to meet family’s needs
Pooling = joint access to income + expenditure
Explanations for divisions of labour within couples
Cultural explanation = division due to patriarchal norms + values
Material explanation = division is due to women earn less money
Two types of women’s responsibilities within the household
Dual burden = paid work and housework
Triple shift = paid work, housework and emotion work
Reasons for increase in divorce rate
Changes in the law = made divorce easier, cheaper + more open
Changes in attitudes = more socially acceptable, less shameful, normalised
Unemployment = financial strain -> increased tension -> more divorce
Life expectancy is increasing = people don’t want to be unhappy for a long time
Changes in religious belief = declining influence, people can now make own decisions without influence
Privatisation of family = keeping away from extended family -> more stress/tension
Changes in birth rate = decreasing
Higher expectations of marriage = seek personal fulfilment, unwilling to tolerate an unhappy marriage
Role of women in society = women > financially independent -> have the means to divorce
How many marriages end in divorce?
Chandler (2005) - around 40%
2022- 42%
7/10 of divorce applications come from women
Cohabitation
Couples cohabiting with children = fastest growing household type
1/8 adults now cohabit instead of marrying - 100% increase since 1996
UK = 69,000 same-sex couples cohabit
X get same legal rights as married couple
One person households
Increasing
UK = 8.3 million people living alone - 2022
By 2033- 30% adults will be single
‘LATs’ = Living Apart Together - couples in long term relationships choosing not to live together - increasing
How have families with parents and children changed?
Childbearing- average age = 30, 47% children born outside of marriage, having less children-> declining stigma, having less children, more options than motherhood, child-centred
Lone Parent Families- 22% of families with children (90%) headed by women, child in LPF 2x > likely to be in poverty -> higher divorce rate, rise of feminism, mothers single by choice, lower income -> benefits
Reconstituted Families- > 10% of families with children -> increase in divorce/separation, more children from women’s previous relationship (85%) (women more likely to get custody), less stigma, > risk of poverty
Ethnic differences in families- Black families + Asian families
Black families
- > proportion of LPF - over 50% of dependent children families were lone (population as a whole <25%)
- Male unemployment + poverty - increase marital breakdown
- Mirza (1997)- high value black women place on independence + don’t put up with unhappy marriages
Asian families
- Bangladeshi, Pakistani + Indian households tend to be larger - > avg family size than White British
- Women > likely to be providing expressive role
- Younger age profile of British Asians = > proportion in childbearing age groups
- Value placed on extended family
- Culture is to look after the elders
What is a beanpole family and why does it exist?
Extended vertically- three or > generations (e.g. grandparents, parents, children) but not extended horizontally
Why does it exist:
-Increasing life expectancy -> more generations
-Smaller family sizes -> less siblings/horizontal ties
What is meant by obligations and the principle of reciprocity?
-Obligation to help extended kin
-Principle of reciprocity = felt help received should be returned to avoid feelings of indebtedness
-Einch + Mason (1993) = over 90% given/received financial help, around 50% cared for a sick relative with > expected of females
-Cheal (2002) = daughter/daughter in law preferred to give care for elderly woman
What is happening to extended family (including evidence)?
-Charles (2008) (Swansea) = 3 generation family under 1 roof is now “all but extinct” except in Bangladeshi community
-Willmott (1988) = not entirely disappeared -> ‘dispersed extended family’ - geographically separated but are in contact
-Chamberlain (1999) (Caribbean families in Britain) = still provided support, close + frequent contact
-Extended family = performs important functions for members
What is a social construction?
Something created by society from social meanings and definitions
How has childhood changed throughout history?
1700s- some children married at 12
1800s- children from 4 allowed in dangerous jobs
Early 1900s- children from 5-10 had to go to school, children <8 X allowed in dangerous jobs
Late 1900s- school leaving age became 16, boys could fight for country at 16, marriage at 16
Cultural differences in childhood
USA = beauty pageants from toddlers->teenagers
Children in war-stricken areas (e.g. Sudan) used as soldiers
Poor areas of India = childhood=non-existent -> expected to act as adults
How do some sociologists argue childhood is trying to be preserved?
-Watershed on TV
-Sex education
-Mobile phones
-Age restrictions/laws
-Driving children to school
How does Wagg describe childhood as being a social construction?
“Childhood is socially constructed. It is, in other words, what members of particular societies, at particular times and particular places, say it is. There is no single universal childhood, experienced by all. SO childhood isn’t ‘natural’ and should be distinguished from mere biological immaturity.”
How do historical differences in childhood show that it is a social construction?
Aries (1960)
Middle Ages (10-13th centuries)
-children didn’t exist- seen as having same needs as adults
-children entered wider society, soon after being weaned
-children were mini adults
13th century onwards
-modern childhood emerged
-schools to specialise in education of young
-growing distinction
-developments led to ‘cult of childhood’
Reasons for changes in the position of children
-Declining family size + infant mortality rates- parents make > financial/emotional investment into children
-Compulsory schooling- 1880, poorer children became dependent on parents
-Laws/policies specific to children- minimum ages, reinforced children are different
-Child protection + welfare legislation e.g. 1989 Children Act
One example of cultural differences between childhoods
Holmes (1974) - Samoan village, children were never ‘too young’ to complete a task e.g. handling dangerous tools/carrying heavy loads
How does Postman (1994) argue childhood is disappearing?
Past- printed word created information hierarchy -> parents could read + get info but children couldn’t
Technology given children too much knowledge + access to adult world
Extreme cases of children committing adult crimes e.g. murder
How does Jenks (2005) argue childhood is not disappearing?
Argues its just changing
Now society is post modern - unstable adult relationships -> insecurity in child’s life, adult relationships with children are of > importance
> surveillance/protection of children from abuse - regulated- childhood is separate
How does the functionalist/march of progress view argue children are better off?
Children are valued, cared for, protected/educated, have more rights, family is child centred -> parents invest emotionally/financially
How does the conflict view (Marxists/feminists) argue children are worse off?
-Children are dependent - result of child labour laws
-Adults have full control over children’s lives
-Can be victims of neglect/abuse
What is the new sociology of childhood?
Adultist viewpoint - children are passive in their childhood, adults shape it
In fact, children are active - childhood theories should come from child’s point of view
Why do child liberationists say children need to be freed from adult control?
-Control over space: ‘no school children’ signs, road safety, have to go to school
-Control over bodies: what they wear, how they walk/sit
-Control over time: how quickly they grow up, time in the day
-Neglect/abuse: Childline = 20,000 calls/year from children saying they’ve been abused
-Age patriarchy: Gittens = inequalities between children + adults -> children are dependent and adults dominate
Sue Palmer’s toxic childhood
Childhood is toxic/children are worse off now
Technological/cultural change leads to damage to children’s emotional/intellectual/physical/social development
How has the UK population grown?
1801= 10.5 million
1901 = 37 million
Today = 67 million
How is birth rate changing and why?
Decreasing because changing position of women, decline in infant mortality, children = economic liability, child centredness
How has life expectancy changed?
1900:
Male = 50, Female = 57
2014:
Male = 79, Female = 82
What factors add and take away from life expectancy?
Adds:
-Professional jobs
-Never smoking
-Drinking in moderation
-Men over 5 foot 10 :)
Take away:
-Unskilled, manual jobs
-Smoking
-Homeless
-Heavy drinking
-Living in a shelter
Ageing population statistics
2007 = people in Britain aged 65 or > outnumbered those <16
61% projected increase in number of people aged >65 in Uk by 2032
Advantages and disadvantages of an ageing population
Advantages:
-more grandparents -> childcare + closer relationship
-more people working = > workforce
-pass on knowledge/finances
Disadvantages:
-more strain on public services
-more state pensions- come from taxpayer
-more strain on family members
-increase in dependency ratio
-increase in one person households- lack of housing
Postmodern view on ageing population
Fixed life stages have now gone
More choice than before
Consumption not production become our identities e.g. anti-ageing cream
Modern society + old age
Ageism result of ‘structured dependency’
Fixed life stages + course
Old excluded from paid work - rely on state/families
Ageism examples = not hiring someone (too young/old), making jokes about the elderly
Marxist view on ageing population
Philipson, 1982
-old not useful for capitalism - not productive
-state can’t support them properly
Migration statistics + facts
-Net migration highest ever been since 2010- in 2022 = around 600,000
-Moving to work in social care- gaps in job sector rely on overseas workers
-People waiting for asylum decision is at all time high (172,758)
Why do people migrate to the UK and away from home countries?
To UK:
-job opportunities
-education
-free healthcare
-quality of life
Away from home countries:
-conflict/dictatorships
-join family members
-rights
-better quality of life elsewhere
Positive + negative effects of immigration
Positive:
-multicultural society + diverse population
-if they’re working -> helps economy
-decreases dependency ratio
-fills jobs e.g. social care
Negative:
-pressure on services
-pressure on housing
-asylum seekers can’t work
-dependence on welfare benefits
-discrimination
-decline of nuclear family
What is globalisation?
Barriers between society are disappearing + people are increasing interconnected across borders
Effects of globalisation on migration
-Acceleration of it- 2000-2013- 862,000 people entered/left UK
-Increased diversity of migrants e.g. students are major group
-‘Hybrid identities’ - Eriksen -> migrants < likely to see themselves as belonging to one country/culture
Class differences among migrants
Cohen (2006)
Citizens- full citizenship rights
Denizens- privileged foreign nationals, welcomed by state
Helots- most exploited, in unskilled/poorly paid work
Feminisation of migration
What is it
Ehrenreich + Hochschild (2003)
Almost 50% global migrants are female - female migrants fit into patriarchal stereotypes
Ehrenreich + Hochschild (2003):
-Care/domestic/sex work done by women from poor countries - more demand for female labour, western men unwilling to perform domestic labour
Domestic violence stats
1/4 women
1/20 men
What is the radical feminist explanation of domestic violence?
-Dobash + Dobash =women were being slapped, pushed, beaten - evidence of patriarchy - male domination + maintaining power
-See family + marriage as source of oppression
-Widespread domestic violence = inevitable result of patriarchy + preserves male power
-Male domination of institutions = explains police reluctance to investigate
Evaluation of feminist explanation of domestic violence
-Elliott (1996) = not all men are aggressive which is ignored
-Doesn’t explain female violence towards men + children + lesbian relationships
-Wrongly assumes all women are equally at risk -> ONS =women from some social groups > risk = young women, lowest social classes, long term illness/disability
Material explanation of domestic violence
Wilkinson
-result of stress on family members caused by social inequality
-some families have < resources e.g. income + housing
-low income, overcrowding - increases stress - decreases stable, caring relationships + increases risk of conflict + violence
Why are victims of domestic violence unwilling to report it?
Yearnshire (1997) = average women suffers 35 assaults before reporting
Dar = victims < likely to report due to belief that its not for the police / too trivial
Why may police + prosecutors be reluctant to investigate reported cases?
Cheal (1991)
-they’re not prepared tho become involved with the family
-make 3 assumptions
-family = private sphere -> state agencies = limited access
-family = good thing + agencies neglect ‘darker side’
-individuals = free agents = assume a woman is free to leave when being abused
Eriksen (2007) transnational identities
-more diverse migration patterns - less permanent settlement
-migrants have more links to other migrants than to country of origin/settlement
Politicisation of migration = assimilationim + multiculturalism
Assimilationism = first state policy approach to immigration, encourage immigrants to adopt language, values, customs of host culture
Castles (2000) = assimilationist policies are counter-productive - makes minority groups seem culturally backward - may promote anti-terrorism policies
Multiculturalism = accepts migrants may wish to retain separate cultural identity
Eriksen:
Shallow diversity = acceptable to state
Deep diversity = not acceptable to state e.g. arranged marriages
Functionalist view on family diversity
Modernist perspective - 1 type of family is best
Parsons = reduced Murdock’s 4 functions of nuclear family to 2 = primary socialisation + adult stabilisation
Parsons:
-says family type in society = nuclear family with clear division of labour
-other types = deviant/unproductive - can’t perform functions
New Right view on family diversity
Conservative/anti-feminist = opposed to diversity
Nuclear family = correct, natural, based on biological differences + its decline is leading to social problems
Amato (2006) = children in nuclear family < likely to experience poverty, educational failure, crime + health problems
Say welfare benefits encourage a dependency culture (however there’s no evidence of this)
Feminist view on family diversity
Oakley = nuclear family -> patriarchal oppression
Cohabitation = better for women
No real evidence of dependency culture
Decline of nuclear/conventional family = good for women
The Rapoports: 5 types of family diversity
Organisational = differences in ways roles are organised
Cultural = different cultural + ethnic groups have different family structures
Social class = differences in family structure store to do with income
Life stage = family structures differ according to the life cycle
Generational = individuals at different ages have different attitudes + experiences - affects view on family life
What is the neo-conventional family?
Chester (1985) = accepts recent family diversity, isn’t significant/negative
Dual-earner
Most people will be part of a nuclear family at some point but will experience other family types in their lifetime
Beck - negotiated family
Traditional patriarchal family has been undermined by 2 trends - increased gender equality + increased individualism -> led to negotiated family, which varies according to wishes + expectations, relationship is more equal but less stable, increasing family diversity
Stacey: Post modern families (1998)
Life history interviews = Californian women
Women = main agents of change in family
Rejected traditional roles + created new family types ->
Divorce-extended family = connected by divorce rather than marriage
Giddens: choice + equality
-Couples define relationship themselves rather than using roles embedded by law/society
-Increased independence of women
- > choice/equality = transformed family + marriage
The pure relationship
Relationship isn’t bound by traditional norms
Exists to satisfy needs - don’t stay together because of tradition, but stay together due to happiness/love
People enter/leave as they see fit
Same-sex couples as pioneers
-Lead to new family types + equal relationships
-Not influenced by tradition - negotiated personal relationships - no pre-existing norms
Weston (1992) = created supportive ‘families of choice’
Marxist perspective on family: Inheritance of property
-increased wealth -> private property -> patriarchal monogamous nuclear family
Engels
-monogamy = essential = men ensured legitimate heirs inherited private property from them
-turned women into ‘mere instrument for the production of children’
-Marxists = overthrowing capitalism + private ownership is only way to liberate women from patriarchy
Marxist perspective on family: ideological functions
-Family socialises children to believe hierarchy + inequality = inevitable
-Parental power over children -> believe in people being in charge
Zaretsky (1976):
-argues family offering haven from exploitation/capitalism = illusion - family can’t meet members needs
Marxist perspective on family: A unit of consumption
-Media target children - ‘pester power’ - parents spend more
-Children lacking latest clothes/gadgets = mocked/stigmatised
Evaluation of Marxist perspective on family
Strengths:
-links family to inequality in capitalist society
-acknowledges dark side of family (ignored by functionalists)
-explores role of ‘oppressive ideologies’
Weaknesses:
-ignores family diversity- theory is outdated
-feminists = Marxists ignore patriarchy + gender inequalities within family
-functionalists = Marxists ignore benefits family provides for its members
Personal life perspective on family: beyond ties of blood + marriage
Focuses on peoples meanings + includes other relationships people see as significant:
-friends
-fictive kin- close friends treated like relatives
-gay + lesbian ‘chosen families’ - supportive network of others not related by blood/marriage
-dead relatives- continue to shape identities/actions
-Tipper (2011) = pets -> children saw pets as ‘part of the family’
Personal life perspective on family: Donor-conceived children
Nordquist + Smart:
-blood/genes raise feelings
-parents place importance of social relationships over genetic ones
-Different appearances - wondering about donor, ‘donor siblings’
-When couples know donor- questions about who counts as family
-Non-genetic parent- difficult feelings over remarks about similar appearances
Evaluation of the personal life perspective on family
Strengths:
-shows there’s now more family diversity
-says family is what individuals choose it to be- meaning to the individuals
Weaknesses:
-too broad- doesn’t talk about the purpose of the family
