Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

English📖 > Theories📚 > Flashcards

Theories📚 Flashcards

You may prefer our related Brainscape-certified flashcards:
Proverbs and Idioms flashcards
1
Q

Paul Grice (1975) (context and identity)👩🏼

A

Came up with maxims:

  • Quantity
  • Relevance
  • Manner
  • Quality
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

Irving Goffman (1955) (context and identity)👩🏼

A

Came up with concept of face

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

Brown and Levinson (1987) (context and identity)👩🏼

A

Developed Goffman’s theory into positive and negative politeness

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

Giles (context and identity)👩🏼

A

Accommodation theory
Convergence
Divergence

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

Fairclough (power)👩🏼

A
  • We unconsciously select an appropriate register which reflects our status
  • Language helps us create hierarchy of power relationships
  • Most conversations have a power struggle
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

Aristotle (identity)👩🏼

A

Ethos, pathos, logos

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

Peter Trudgill (gender and identity)👩🏼

A

Covert and overt prestige - said women are more likely to use overt prestige
Often supports Lakoff’s model

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

Pateman (power)👩🏼

A

Oppressive and repressive discourse strategies

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

Julia Stanley - 1977 (gender and identity)👩🏼

A
  • Negative semantic space for women

* Women carry a negative association with various societal roles

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

Muriel Schulz - semantic derogation - 1975 (gender and identity)👩🏼

A
  • Terms related to women become pejorative over time

* She examined pairs of words, such as dog and bitch and master and mistress

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

The Bodine theory - hegemony (gender and identity)👩🏼

A
  • We live in an androcentric society where many words and figures of speech are slanted towards the superiority of men over women
  • Men are seen as dominant over women
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

Miller and swift (gender and identity)👩🏼

A

Women are often portrayed as emotional and irrational

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

De Klerk (gender and identity)👩🏼

A
  • Linked expletive use to exerting a masculine identity (gender)
  • Did not say it was a feature of either sex
  • Helps to exert power
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

The deficit model - Robin Lakoff (gender and identity)👩🏼

A
  • Language used by and about men is the norm and women’s language is judged
  • Women’s language is seen as deficient
  • Men use more powerful language while women use more tentative language
  • One finding - women used specialised lexis for colours and men used specialised lexis for sports
  • Women hedge, speak in italics, use empty adjectives, use hyper correct grammar, wh-imperatives etc. See notes for more
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

Behaviourist theory - B.F. Skinner (child language)👶🏼

A

Imitations and reinforcements
•Children learn by a ‘trial and error method’ and through imitating adults
•Their behaviour is then reinforced by negative or positive feedback from the caregiver
•This is known as operant conditioning

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

The dominance model (1975) - West and Zimmerman (founded it) and Dale Spender (she supports it) (gender and identity)👩🏼

A
  • In mixed sex conversations, women are dominated by men
  • Women do not assert themselves in interactions - if she does, she must hedge to suppress the effect and respect for the laid down societal norms
  • Men dominate by being more verbose and initiating topics more successfully
  • Men often interrupt women
  • This way of ‘doing power’ indicates women’s language is weak and powerless
  • Found that women use no overlaps with men, but frequently with other women
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

Geoffrey Beattie - contradicts dominance model (gender and identity)👩🏼

A
  • Said West and Zimmerman’s study would only have taken one very voluble man to impact results
  • Interruptions aren’t necessarily a sign of dominance
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

Dale Spender - supports the dominance model (gender and identity)👩🏼

A
  • Language is biased towards males - ‘man made language’
  • Challenges the view that women gossip - men are more likely to talk, women are more likely to listen
  • Marked and unmarked terms
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

O’Barr and Atkins - contradicts dominance model and deficit model (gender and identity)👩🏼

A
  • Analysed courtroom discourse and found female lawyers to be assertive and often interrupt
  • Found that witnesses of both sexes would use Lakoff’s weak ‘female’ language - these weak language traits are actually a “powerless language” rather than a “female language”
  • Men are more humorous
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

Chomsky - Nativist theory (child language)👶🏼

A
  • Children have an inbuilt capacity to acquire language - ‘Language Acquisition Device’ (LAD)
  • Suggests that as children learn language, they create unique utterances like ‘her not hungry’ - child is experimenting with morphology
  • Came up with term virtuous error for non standard forms
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

Bruner - Social Interactionist Theory (Child language)👶🏼

A

•Stresses the fundamental role of social interaction in the development of a child’s language acquisition
•Coined the acronym LASS (Language Acquisition Support System) - child’s interaction with others and how a caregivers interaction can develop a child’s language
E.g. child directed speech, accommodation, interrogatives, shared knowledge
•Could say caregivers are teaching the child the ‘art of conversation’

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

Deborah Tanner - The difference model (gender and identity)👩🏼

A
  • Coined the term genderlect to describe the way that the conversations of men and women is not right and wrong, superior and inferior - just different
  • SEE NOTES FOR MORE DETAIL
  • Support vs status, advice vs understanding, information vs feelings, orders vs proposals, conflict vs compromise, independence vs intimacy
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

Baker (2010) (gender and identity)👩🏼

A
  • The honorific Ms still has a long way to come before it’s considered the favourable female gendered title, suggesting it has marked connotations - Ms created by feminists but has stigma
  • The noun girl is more likely to be used compared to the noun boy when referring to adults
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

Pamela Fishman (1980) (gender and identity)👩🏼

A
  • Supports difference model
  • Women carry out the ‘interactional shiftwork’
  • This suggests women are more supportive in conversation and will engage in more turn-taking, tag questions, minimal responses and forms of back-channelling
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

Janet Holmes tag questions (gender and identity)👩🏼

A
  • Men and women use an equal amount of tags
  • Women are prone to use more addressee-oriented tags - particularly facilitative
  • Men are prone to use more speaker-oriented tags - particularly epistemic modal tags
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

Cognitive theory - Piaget and Vygotsky (child language)👶🏼

A

Concepts and language development

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

What did Piaget say? (Cognitive theory) (child language)👶🏼

A
  • Children are egocentric
  • Object permanence - child has an awareness and cognitive understanding of objects, people and things, despite them not being directly in front of them
  • Children can only understand language when they understand the concept - through experience
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q

What did Vygotsky say? (Cognitive theory) (child language)👶🏼

A
  • Introduced idea of a more knowledgeable other

* Other people play a significant role in the development of a child’s cognitive understanding

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q

Michael Halliday - taxonomy of language, 7 functions (Child language)👶🏼

A
  • Instrumental - express needs
  • Regulatory - influence behaviour of others
  • Interactional - make contact with others and form relationships
  • Personal - express feelings, opinions and individual identity
  • Heuristic - explore and gain knowledge
  • Imaginative - tell stories, jokes and create and imaginary environment
  • Representational - convey facts and information
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
30
Q

Fairclough - synthetic personalisation (identity)👩🏼

A
  • When addressing a mass audience, making each member feel individually involved in a natural conversation
  • Created through 2nd p.p “you” and inclusive pronouns “we”, “us”, “our”
  • May adopt an informal or personal tone using colloquialisms or humour
  • May include rhetorical questions to involve audience
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
31
Q

Katherine Nelson - Holophrastic (child language)👶🏼

A
  • Looked at a child’s first 50 words - Found that 60% of children’s early word phrases contained nouns
  • Followed by verbs, then modifiers, then personal/social words
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
32
Q

Roger Brown’s meaning relations- two-word (1976) (child language)👶🏼

A
  • When children first combine words, they talk about objects
  • They also talk about actions performed by people and the objects and locations of these actions
  • Word maths - SEE NOTES
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
33
Q

What did Piaget say about the two-word stage/sensorimotor stage? (Child language)👶🏼

A
  • Stage from birth to approximately 2 years old

* Time of rapid cognitive growth for children

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
34
Q

Ursula Bellugi - three stages of negative forms (child language)👶🏼

A

•STAGE 1: child uses ‘no’ or ‘not’ at the beginning of end of a sentence
•STAGE 2: child moves the determiners ‘no’/‘not’ inside the sentence
•STAGE 3: child attaches the negative to verbs securely
LINKS TO DAVID CRYSTAL

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
35
Q

David Crystal (child language)👶🏼

A

Children use pragmatic devices to say no and will use words like ‘maybe’ (indirect) to portray a negative response.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
36
Q

Ursula Bellugi - three stages of pronoun usage (child language)👶🏼

A
  • STAGE 1: child uses their own name, rather than pronoun usage
  • STAGE 2: child recognises I/me pronouns, though these are not always in standard form
  • STAGE 3: child uses pronouns in the standard subjective and objective position with sentences
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
37
Q

Why did Bellugi say pronouns can be difficult words to use accurately? (Child language)👶🏼

A 
They express many different things
•Person
•Number
•Gender
•Possession
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
38
Q

Rescorla - overextensions(1980) (Child language)👶🏼

A 
•Divided overextensions into
-Categorical
-Analogical 
-Mismatch statements
•Found that most of children’s overextensions are categorical
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
39
Q

Coates (2004) (Gender and identity)👩🏼

A
  • Back channeling devices such as minimal responses like ‘mmm’ and ‘yeah’ etc are more common in women’s discourse to show collaboration communication and support
  • ’Verbal jousting’ between men and boys as a means of constructing solidarity
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
40
Q

Fang (2008) (Gender and identity)👩🏼

A

Minimal responses are back-channeling devices that are used to encourage speakers in conversation and demonstrate the hearer is listening

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
41
Q

David Crystal - standard English 5 characteristics (1995) (Identity)👩🏼

A
  • Not regionally based
  • No distinctive features of pronunciation (but does of everyone else)
  • Most prestigious variety of English
  • Promoted by educational institutions and used in government, law and mass media
  • The variety most commonly used in printed texts - only a minority use it when they speak
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
42
Q

Trudgill -ing suffix (1983)👩🏼

A
  • People asked to read aloud were more likely to pronounce -ing ending
  • In more relaxed situations, there is a greater tendency to omit the -ing suffix
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
43
Q

Robin Lakoff Politeness Principle (1973) (identity)👩🏼

A

Three maxims:
•Don’t impose
•Give options
•Make your receiver feel good

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
44
Q

Ken Bleile - Phonology (Child language)👶🏼

A
  • Children often find fricatives (bc of airflow) and affricate (bc of combination of two sounds) hard to produce
  • As a result, often substitute these with others phonemes
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
45
Q

Berko and Brown - Phonological experimentation (Child language)👶🏼

A

•Child referred to plastic fish as ‘fis’
•Adults asked “Is this your fish?”
-child replied “yes, my fis”
•Adults asked “Is this your fis?”
-child replied frustratedly, no my fis
•Shows that although the child couldn’t produce the phones /ʃʼ/, he could perceive it as being different from the phoneme /s/

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
46
Q

Cooperative principle 👩🏼

A

Involves maxims that people to follow when talking to each other in order for communication to flow smoothly

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
47
Q

B.M. Kroll (child language WRITTEN)

Stage 1: Preparatory Stage👶🏼

A
  • Up to the age of 6
  • Masters basic motor/mechanical skills
  • Directionality/linearity will show signs of improvement
  • Ascenders and descenders are likely to be reversed
  • Begin to learn basic principles of the spelling system - often see salient spelling
  • Semiotic understanding
  • Write short texts
  • Lots of capitalisation
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
48
Q

B.M. Kroll (child language WRITTEN)

Stage 2: Consolidation Stage👶🏼

A 
•Age 7/8
•Child writes how they speak
-may see informal writing and phonetic spelling
•Use short declaratives
•Often has lots of ‘and’ conjunctions
-polysyndeton 
•Minor sentences 
-unsure how to finish 
-could be distracted
•Context bound style of writing
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
49
Q

B.M. Kroll (child language WRITTEN)

Stage 3: Differentiation Stage👶🏼

A

•Age 9/10
•Establishes more of a written mode/medium
•Develop genre awareness
•Still see non-standard usages
-particularly with spelling system
•Starts to write to reflect thoughts and feelings
-e.g. more adjectives may be present
•Likely use writing guides and frameworks to help structure their work

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
50
Q

B.M. Kroll (child language WRITTEN)

Stage 4: Integration Stage👶🏼

A
  • Age 11 onwards
  • A personal writing style is established
  • Child can change their style according to purpose and audience
  • Spelling is more accurate
  • Language choices are more aware
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
51
Q

Nutbrown (child language)👶🏼

A

•Being in a school environment can restrict a child’s creativity
•A child’s environment will impact their written environment
-they will include what they read, watch on tv, as well as cultural aspects such as beliefs, religion, gender and ethnicity

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
52
Q

Crystal - active with passive 👶🏼

A
  • Around 3 years old, no children used passive voice

* At 7, ability use passive voice dramatically increased

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
53
Q

Gierut👶🏼

A
  • Consonant clusters are acquired relatively late in development
  • Described them as ‘extremely vulnerable in the acquisition course’
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
54
Q

When do children substitute fricatives and affricates according to bliele?👶🏼

A

Ages 2-5

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
55
Q

Aitchison stage 1: Labelling👶🏼

A
  • Child identifies objects and people - e.g. understanding that ‘mummy refers to the child’s mother’
  • Relates to Roger Brown’s nomination
  • Children use holophrase/operators
  • One word - two word stage
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
56
Q

Aitchison stage 2: Packaging👶🏼

A

•Starting to explore the extent of the label
•Often the point where overextension and underextension occur most frequently
-e.g. calling mother’s coat ‘mummy’
-links to Rescorla

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
57
Q

Aitchison stage 3: Network Building👶🏼

A

•Involves grasping the connections between words
-understanding that some words are opposite in meaning and acknowledging the relationship between hypernyms and hyponyms
•Links to synonyms and antonyms
•A much wider lexicon/vocabulary is mastered
•Higher level of semantic awareness

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
58
Q

Bowerman (Child language)👶🏼

A

When children make verbal errors with changes of state and location verbs, it demonstrates they have developed a large vocabulary

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
59
Q

Clark (Child language)👶🏼

A

Spatial adjectives are difficult for children to learn

60
Q

What is Bernstein’s restricted code?👩🏼

A
  • Short, simple and sometimes incomplete sentences
  • Repetition of a limited range of conjunctions
  • Limited use of modifiers
  • Frequent use of idioms
  • Reliance on implicit meaning
61
Q

What is Bernstein’s elaborated code?👩🏼

A
  • More complex sentences
  • Wider range of conjunctions
  • Wider range of modifiers
  • More explicit meanings
62
Q

What did Bernstein say linking to identity?👩🏼

A
  • Our environment determines what type of language we use
  • We can all use restricted code
  • Restricted code is used in informal situations with close family members/friends
  • Elaborated code is not used by lower working class families
63
Q

How does Bernstein’s theory link to child language?👶🏼

A

Working class children are at a disadvantage as education makes extensive use of elaborated code

64
Q

When do children stop being egocentric according to Piaget?👶🏼

A

7

65
Q

Bowerman (Child language)👶🏼

A
  • Study of her daughter’s vocabulary development led her to the observation that verbal over-generalisations or adjective experimentation most commonly occur once children have developed a fairly large vocabulary
  • They then begin to test the limits of these regularities
66
Q

Clark - spatial adjectives (child language)👶🏼

A

•Some spatial adjectives tend to be more difficult for children to acquire
•Some words refer to relative qualities
-an object can only be big or tall in relation to something else

67
Q

What theories link to sociodramatic play?👶🏼

A 
•Halliday’s imaginative function
•Skinner’s behaviourist theory 
-imitation
•Vygotsky - adult behaviours
•Garvey - pretend play
68
Q

Vygotsky (sociodramatic play) (Child language)👶🏼

A
  • Observed children’s play and linked it to cognitive and social development, thus illustrating its significance
  • Children role play adult behaviours as part of exploring their environment
69
Q

Garvey (sociodramatic play) (Child language)👶🏼

A
  • Children adopt roles/identities, act out storylines and invent objects and settings as required in a role-play scenario
  • Termed pretend play
70
Q

Barclay: Stage 1 (scribbling stage)👶🏼

A
  • Random marks on a page

* Writing and scribbles are accompanied by speaking

71
Q

Barclay: Stage 2 (mock handwriting stage)👶🏼

A
  • Writings and drawings
  • Produce wavy lines, which is their understanding of lineation
  • Cursive writing
72
Q

Barclay: Stage 3 (mock letters)👶🏼

A

Letters are separate things

73
Q

Barclay: Stage 4 (conventional letters)👶🏼

A
  • Usually involves writing the name as the first word

* Child usually puts letters on a page but is able to read it as words

74
Q

Barclay: Stage 5 (invented spelling stage)👶🏼

A

Child spells in the way they understand the word should be spelt
-own way

75
Q

Barclay: Stage 6 (appropriate/phonetic spelling stage)👶🏼

A

Attach spellings with sounds

76
Q

Barclay: Stage 7 (correct spelling stage)👶🏼

A

Are able to spell most words

77
Q

What does Kroll say about genre?👶🏼

A

•Stage 3 (differentiation stage - age 9) discusses genre
-children recognise various writing styles, thus becoming aware of genre
•Stage 4 (integration stage - age 12+)
-child develops a personal style and understands how you can change register according to audience and purpose
-genre distinction becomes more distinct

78
Q

Rothery (Child language written)👶🏼

A 
•Says recounts usually follow a set pattern 
•Orientation
-sets the scene, context is established
•Event
-what actually happened
•Reorientation
-a completion of the writing
79
Q

What are Britton’s 3 models of children’s writing? (child language written)👶🏼

A
  • Expressive
  • Poetic
  • Transactional
80
Q

Expressive model (Britton) (Child language written)👶🏼

A
  • Resembles speech

* 1st person and context is based on personal preferences

81
Q

Poetic model (Britton) (Child language written)👶🏼

A
  • Creativity begins
  • Child will use adjectives and similes (descriptive features)
  • May use phonological features, such as rhyme, rhythm and alliteration
82
Q

Transactional model (Britton) (Child language written)👶🏼

A

•Around secondary school age
-more academic style essays
•Formal stage
•3rd person voice

83
Q

Thompson (Child language)👶🏼

A

Girls are more likely to ask adult’s help in activities such as jigsaws

84
Q

Sachs (Child language)👶🏼

A

Boys are more likely to use imperatives during pretend play than girls

85
Q

Sheldon (Child language)👶🏼

A

Girls often try to negotiate a settlement to a play dispute

86
Q

Authoritarian parenting (Baumrind) (Child language)👶🏼

A
  • ”Too hard”
  • Highly demanding but not responsive
  • Requires obedience and following rules
87
Q

Permissive parenting (Baumrind) (Child language)👶🏼

A
  • ”Too soft”
  • Low demand but highly responsive
  • Children may be spoiled, self-centred and not do as well in school
88
Q

Authoritative parenting (Baumrind)(Child language)👶🏼

A
  • ”Just right”
  • Moderately demanding and responsive
  • Children are most likely to be happy, capable and successful
89
Q

Uninvolved parenting (Baumrind) (Child language)👶🏼

A
  • Few demands, low responsiveness and little communication
  • Detached from child’s life
  • Children may lack self-control, have a lower self-esteem and are less competent
90
Q

Ferreiro and Teberosky (Child language)👶🏼

A
  • Being in a school environment can restrict a child’s imagination
  • In a relaxed environment they are free to be more creative
91
Q

Gunther Kress (Child language)👶🏼

A
  • Children are experimental and creative if they invert graphemes
  • E.g. b and d
92
Q

Janet Holmes (1995) - pragmatic particle👩🏼

A

Pragmatic particle ‘y’know’ often creates positive politeness and solidarity in spoken discourse

93
Q

Eckert and McConnel-Ginet👩🏼

A
  • Where we see collaborative talk, these researchers refer to this as ‘community of practice’
  • This can link to shared knowledge, group membership, sociolect and convergence
94
Q

Labov’s oral storytelling discourse👩🏼

A

•Story telling discourse involves:

  • orientation - establishing context
  • action - describing the event of the story
  • evaluation - assessing the story (often through hyperbole and prosody features)
  • coda - bringing the story back to the point/ending
95
Q

Spender (gender)👩🏼

A

There are societal expectations of women to speak less than men, so if a woman speaks the same amount as a man, she is perceived as being too verbose

96
Q

Coates - joint floor (gender)👩🏼

A 
Women friends (in contrast to men friends) much enjoy the jointly developed floor, having no problem with understanding utterances produced simultaneously
-there are two types of floor - one at a time and supportive, simultaneous speech
97
Q

FUDGE theory - Metcalf (2002)🕰

A

Addresses why and how new words come into the language and how others become unsuccessful
•Factor 1: Frequency of use
•Factor 2: Unobtrusiveness
•Factor 3: Diversity of users and situations
•Factor 4: Generation of forms and other meanings
•Factor 5: Endurance of the concept

98
Q

Explain Metcalf’s Factor 1: Frequency of use🕰

A
  • The more often a word is used and the number of people who continue to use it will impact the word’s success
  • E.g. the term ‘dot’ in webspeak has caught on as the way to convey website address
99
Q

Explain Metcalf’s Factor 2: Unobtrusiveness🕰

A
  • Metcalf maintains that words that attract less attention and comment are more likely to catch on than those that stand out or are exotic
  • Successful words are adopted and used unconsciously
  • Words and phrases that are too clever or associated with a pop culture movement tend to fade quickly
100
Q

Explain Metcalf’s Factor 3: Diversity of users and situations🕰

A
  • For a word to catch on it needs to be used by more than one group of users
  • E.g. ‘leet’ is a special alphabet used by an ‘in group’ who use it to communicate on the internet - it’s not a word many people outside that group are familiar with
  • E.g. ‘spam’ has caught on and is not just used by a computing sociolect
101
Q

Explain Metcalf’s Factor 4: Generation of other forms and meanings🕰

A
  • Words that generate other words are more likely to catch on
  • E.g. ‘babysit’ has caught on as a verb, but it also generates ‘baby sitter’ and ’baby-sitting’
  • Therefore, successful words tend to be used as other parts of speech, e.g. “verbing” nouns, or have multiple meanings or can be extended as metaphors
102
Q

Explain Metcalf’s Factor 5: Endurance of the concept🕰

A
  • If a neologised word is no longer used, the survival of that word is minimal
  • E.g. ‘Glasnot’ was a word for the improvement relations between Russia and other countries after the Cold War - ‘Cold War’ is still needed as a historical term but ‘glasnot’ is no longer a concept
103
Q

Romaine🕰

A

The discourse of the texts during the early modern English period were built on Latinate prestige forms, where lengthy and complex sentences were used

104
Q

David Crystal🕰

A

Commented on how the English language is shortening due to the influence of technology

105
Q

Tannen (1994) rapport vs report👩🏼

A
  • The language of women is primarily ‘rapport-talk’, where establishing connections and promoting sameness is emphasised
  • Men use language described as ‘report-talk’ as a way of preserving independence while exhibiting knowledge and skill
106
Q

Montgomery (1995)👩🏼

A
  • Men tends to use simple, direct statements

* Women rely on ‘couching their commands as inclusive suggestions for action’

107
Q

Holmes (2001)👩🏼

A
  • In casual conversation, it is women who take on the role as facilitator
  • Men are less sensitive to the interactional process
108
Q

Rakow (1992)👩🏼

A

Much advertising is oppressive to women and is very difficult to resist, even when one is a committed feminist

109
Q

Gleason et al (1994)👶🏼👩🏼

A

Parents use more diminutives when speaking to girls than to boys

110
Q

Gill (2007)👩🏼

A

Portrayal of women in today’s media is influenced by feminism with some reflection on the notion of a ‘postfeminist media culture’

111
Q

What is corporal power?👩🏼

A
  • A type of knowledge and ideas power

* Power related to business

112
Q

What is social group power?👩🏼

A
  • A type of influential power
  • Power surrounding the relationship between groups, classes, or other social formations, or between persons as social members
  • E.g. social group power of a group of friends or church goers
113
Q

Fairclough - advertising👩🏼

A

Designed a model to explain the persuasive effect of advertising and what advertising makes use of
•Synthetic personalisation
•Member’s resources (tapping into the knowledge of the text received and creating an image of the product being advertised - often achieved through graphology)
•Building the consumer (text producer does this by building an ideology and making it seem like the consumer has already brought the product/given to charity, etc.

114
Q

Sinclair and Coulthard - IRF model - teacher talk👩🏼👶🏼

A
  • Informatives
  • Dierectives
  • Elicitation
  • Modal auxiliary verbs
  • Prosodic features
  • Open questions
  • Known answer questions
  • Direct nomination
115
Q

David Crystal - subjunctive🕰

A

The subjunctive adds formality to the texts

116
Q

Goodman (1996)🕰

A

Language over time has become more informal

117
Q

Labov - changes from above🕰

A
  • ’Changes from above’ relates to changes made by socially dominant groups
  • In Early Modern English times, grammarians like Jonathan Swift had a major impact on the standardisation of our language, so we can identify this as a ‘change from above’
118
Q

The New Fowler’s English Usage (1996)🕰

A

There has been a decrease in usage of the subjunctive form from 1600-1900

119
Q

Biber🕰

A
  • The use of passive voice seems to have declined in usage in the later modern period
  • Biber demonstrates that it was more common in all registers in the 18th century than in the 20th century, by which time it had become mainly restricted to formal registers such as scientific writing
120
Q

What theories link to deixis?🕰

A
  • Levinson

* Fries

121
Q

What did Levinson say about the deictic expression ‘now’ vs what did Fries say?🕰

A
  • Levinson - now is normally the time at which the speaker is producing the utterance containing ‘now’
  • Fries - in Early Modern English, ‘now’ was also used to refer to the immediate past
122
Q

Halliday - Functional theory🕰

A 
•Language changes according to the need of its users 
•This mainly covers lexical change
•Includes:
-new discoveries/learning/inventions
-technological words
-slang
•E.g. cassette to cd
123
Q

Postal🕰

A

Language is as unpredictable as fashion and therefore changes in language are totally random

124
Q

Hockett🕰

A

Random mistakes lead to language changing

125
Q

Substratum theory🕰

A
  • Changes in language are coming about through language contact
  • In the past this happened mainly through trade and invasion
  • Nowadays it might happen through social networking and immigration
126
Q

Fogarty - conjunctions🕰

A

Starting sentences with conjunctions is an informal style and makes writing sound conversational

127
Q

Joan Beal🕰

A
  • 4 different usages of dummy auxiliary/periphrastic ‘do’
  • N - negated forms, e.g. ‘didn’t’
  • I - inverted forms to formulate interrogatives, e.g. ‘did you see?’
  • C - code usage to avoid repetition, e.g. ‘Susie ate the cake and so did Adam’
  • E - emphatic usage, e.g. ‘I do hope you have done your homework’
  • Has said use of do entered the language in late Middle English/Early modern English period
  • By 18th century do became an obligatory element in the structure of English
128
Q

Fogarty - pronouns🕰

A

Pronouns such as ‘thee’, ‘thou’ and ‘thy’ were considered informal pronouns whilst ‘you’ was seen as formal

129
Q

Theories linking to age and the internet👩🏼🕰

A

•Nielsen (2007):
-research shown the age of people using email has gone up
•Pingdom (2013):
-research has shown the age of people using Facebook has gone up

130
Q

David Crystal - orthography🕰

A
  • Crystal identifies that in Anglo Saxon times, the spelling of English was fairly regular
  • However, the pronunciation has changed frequently over the centuries, and the spelling has not kept up with this, which is one of the reasons we get so many irregularities
131
Q

The Great Vowel Shift🕰

A
  • Demonstrates the phonology influence upon the orthography of English
  • The GVS was a massive sound change affecting the long monophthongs of English during the 15th-18th centuries
  • E.g. ‘mice’ was pronounced ‘mis’ or ‘meece’
  • Impact in pronunciation and spelling
132
Q

Lynn Truss - punctuation🕰

A
  • Credits some current misunderstanding of punctuation rules to the fact that before the 19th century it was customary to put and apostrophe before the plural inflection on foreign borrowed words such as banana - banana’s in every context
  • Can apply Truss when analysing varied punctuation generally
133
Q

Example of applying Truss🕰

A

Linguist Lynn Truss has examined how there is a misunderstanding with punctuation, possibly due to the changing rules surrounding its usage…etc

134
Q

What has David Crystal said about language change?🕰

A

Language changes to reflect society

135
Q

David Crystal - texting🕰

A

Texting has added a new dimension to language use, but it’s long term impact is negligible - it is not a disaster

136
Q

David Crystal - kids texting👶🏼🕰

A

Kids texting are the most literate and best at spelling because they are able to manipulate the language

137
Q

What does David Crystal refer to internet language as?👩🏼

A

People join it and it quickly evolves into an ‘internet dialect’

138
Q

David Crystal - films👩🏼

A

Of all the mediums that influence language, film has the most effect through catchphrases

139
Q

David Crystal - 1950s🕰

A

The ethos of 50 years ago was that there was one kind of English that was right and everything else was wrong

140
Q

David Crystal - internet🕰

A

The internet is allowing more people to influence spelling than ever before

141
Q

What does Crystal say about printing?🕰

A
  • Thought to be an invention of the devil as it would put false opinions into people’s minds
  • Ever since it’s arrival, people have been saying that new technology would have disastrous consequences for the language
142
Q

David Crystal - vacuum cleaner🕰

A

English has been a vacuum cleaner of a language because of its history, e.g. Vikings, Renaissance etc

143
Q

David Crystal🕰

A

We respect foreign spellings these days

144
Q

Beal🕰

A
  • The turn of the millennium (21st century) has seen the appearance of a number of overtly prescriptive texts
  • Can contradict Goodman
145
Q

Fairclough👩🏼

A

•Power in discourse is to do with powerful participants controlling and constraining contributions of non-powerful participants
•These constraints are on:
-contents - on what is said or done
-relations - social relations people enter into in discourse
-subjects - ‘subject positions’ people can occupy

146
Q

Mayer👶🏼

A

Emergent writing is a form of communication

English📖 (15 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions