Theories📚 Flashcards

Question

Janet Holmes tag questions (gender and identity)👩🏼

Answer 1

* Men and women use an equal amount of tags * Women are prone to use more addressee-oriented tags - particularly facilitative * Men are prone to use more speaker-oriented tags - particularly epistemic modal tags

Answer 2

Concepts and language development

Answer 3

* Children are egocentric * Object permanence - child has an awareness and cognitive understanding of objects, people and things, despite them not being directly in front of them * Children can only understand language when they understand the concept - through experience

Answer 4

* Introduced idea of a more knowledgeable other | * Other people play a significant role in the development of a child’s cognitive understanding

Answer 5

* Instrumental - express needs * Regulatory - influence behaviour of others * Interactional - make contact with others and form relationships * Personal - express feelings, opinions and individual identity * Heuristic - explore and gain knowledge * Imaginative - tell stories, jokes and create and imaginary environment * Representational - convey facts and information

Answer 6

* When addressing a mass audience, making each member feel individually involved in a natural conversation * Created through 2nd p.p “you” and inclusive pronouns “we”, “us”, “our” * May adopt an informal or personal tone using colloquialisms or humour * May include rhetorical questions to involve audience

Answer 7

* Looked at a child’s first 50 words - Found that 60% of children’s early word phrases contained nouns * Followed by verbs, then modifiers, then personal/social words

Answer 8

* When children first combine words, they talk about objects * They also talk about actions performed by people and the objects and locations of these actions * Word maths - SEE NOTES

Answer 9

* Stage from birth to approximately 2 years old | * Time of rapid cognitive growth for children

Answer 10

•STAGE 1: child uses ‘no’ or ‘not’ at the beginning of end of a sentence •STAGE 2: child moves the determiners ‘no’/‘not’ inside the sentence •STAGE 3: child attaches the negative to verbs securely LINKS TO DAVID CRYSTAL

Answer 11

Children use pragmatic devices to say no and will use words like ‘maybe’ (indirect) to portray a negative response.

Answer 12

* STAGE 1: child uses their own name, rather than pronoun usage * STAGE 2: child recognises I/me pronouns, though these are not always in standard form * STAGE 3: child uses pronouns in the standard subjective and objective position with sentences

Answer 13

``` They express many different things •Person •Number •Gender •Possession ```

Answer 14

``` •Divided overextensions into -Categorical -Analogical -Mismatch statements •Found that most of children’s overextensions are categorical ```

Answer 15

* Back channeling devices such as minimal responses like ‘mmm’ and ‘yeah’ etc are more common in women’s discourse to show collaboration communication and support * ’Verbal jousting’ between men and boys as a means of constructing solidarity

Answer 16

Minimal responses are back-channeling devices that are used to encourage speakers in conversation and demonstrate the hearer is listening

Answer 17

* Not regionally based * No distinctive features of pronunciation (but does of everyone else) * Most prestigious variety of English * Promoted by educational institutions and used in government, law and mass media * The variety most commonly used in printed texts - only a minority use it when they speak

Answer 18

* People asked to read aloud were more likely to pronounce -ing ending * In more relaxed situations, there is a greater tendency to omit the -ing suffix

Answer 19

Three maxims: •Don’t impose •Give options •Make your receiver feel good

Answer 20

* Children often find fricatives (bc of airflow) and affricate (bc of combination of two sounds) hard to produce * As a result, often substitute these with others phonemes

Answer 21

•Child referred to plastic fish as ‘fis’ •Adults asked “Is this your fish?” -child replied “yes, my fis” •Adults asked “Is this your fis?” -child replied frustratedly, no my fis •Shows that although the child couldn’t produce the phones /ʃʼ/, he could perceive it as being different from the phoneme /s/

Answer 22

Involves maxims that people to follow when talking to each other in order for communication to flow smoothly

Answer 23

* Up to the age of 6 * Masters basic motor/mechanical skills * Directionality/linearity will show signs of improvement * Ascenders and descenders are likely to be reversed * Begin to learn basic principles of the spelling system - often see salient spelling * Semiotic understanding * Write short texts * Lots of capitalisation

Answer 24

``` •Age 7/8 •Child writes how they speak -may see informal writing and phonetic spelling •Use short declaratives •Often has lots of ‘and’ conjunctions -polysyndeton •Minor sentences -unsure how to finish -could be distracted •Context bound style of writing ```

Answer 25

•Age 9/10 •Establishes more of a written mode/medium •Develop genre awareness •Still see non-standard usages -particularly with spelling system •Starts to write to reflect thoughts and feelings -e.g. more adjectives may be present •Likely use writing guides and frameworks to help structure their work

Answer 26

* Age 11 onwards * A personal writing style is established * Child can change their style according to purpose and audience * Spelling is more accurate * Language choices are more aware

Answer 27

•Being in a school environment can restrict a child’s creativity •A child’s environment will impact their written environment -they will include what they read, watch on tv, as well as cultural aspects such as beliefs, religion, gender and ethnicity

Answer 28

* Around 3 years old, no children used passive voice | * At 7, ability use passive voice dramatically increased

Answer 29

* Consonant clusters are acquired relatively late in development * Described them as ‘extremely vulnerable in the acquisition course’

Answer 30

* Child identifies objects and people - e.g. understanding that ‘mummy refers to the child’s mother’ * Relates to Roger Brown’s nomination * Children use holophrase/operators * One word - two word stage

Answer 31

•Starting to explore the extent of the label •Often the point where overextension and underextension occur most frequently -e.g. calling mother’s coat ‘mummy’ -links to Rescorla

Answer 32

•Involves grasping the connections between words -understanding that some words are opposite in meaning and acknowledging the relationship between hypernyms and hyponyms •Links to synonyms and antonyms •A much wider lexicon/vocabulary is mastered •Higher level of semantic awareness

Answer 33

When children make verbal errors with changes of state and location verbs, it demonstrates they have developed a large vocabulary

Answer 34

Spatial adjectives are difficult for children to learn

Answer 35

* Short, simple and sometimes incomplete sentences * Repetition of a limited range of conjunctions * Limited use of modifiers * Frequent use of idioms * Reliance on implicit meaning

Answer 36

* More complex sentences * Wider range of conjunctions * Wider range of modifiers * More explicit meanings

Answer 37

* Our environment determines what type of language we use * We can all use restricted code * Restricted code is used in informal situations with close family members/friends * Elaborated code is not used by lower working class families

Answer 38

Working class children are at a disadvantage as education makes extensive use of elaborated code

Answer 39

* Study of her daughter’s vocabulary development led her to the observation that verbal over-generalisations or adjective experimentation most commonly occur once children have developed a fairly large vocabulary * They then begin to test the limits of these regularities

Answer 40

•Some spatial adjectives tend to be more difficult for children to acquire •Some words refer to relative qualities -an object can only be big or tall in relation to something else

Answer 41

``` •Halliday’s imaginative function •Skinner’s behaviourist theory -imitation •Vygotsky - adult behaviours •Garvey - pretend play ```

Answer 42

* Observed children’s play and linked it to cognitive and social development, thus illustrating its significance * Children role play adult behaviours as part of exploring their environment

Answer 43

* Children adopt roles/identities, act out storylines and invent objects and settings as required in a role-play scenario * Termed pretend play

Answer 44

* Random marks on a page | * Writing and scribbles are accompanied by speaking

Answer 45

* Writings and drawings * Produce wavy lines, which is their understanding of lineation * Cursive writing

Answer 46

Letters are separate things

Answer 47

* Usually involves writing the name as the first word | * Child usually puts letters on a page but is able to read it as words

Answer 48

Child spells in the way they understand the word should be spelt -own way

Answer 49

Attach spellings with sounds

Answer 50

Are able to spell most words

Answer 51

•Stage 3 (differentiation stage - age 9) discusses genre -children recognise various writing styles, thus becoming aware of genre •Stage 4 (integration stage - age 12+) -child develops a personal style and understands how you can change register according to audience and purpose -genre distinction becomes more distinct

Answer 52

``` •Says recounts usually follow a set pattern •Orientation -sets the scene, context is established •Event -what actually happened •Reorientation -a completion of the writing ```

Answer 53

* Expressive * Poetic * Transactional

Answer 54

* Resembles speech | * 1st person and context is based on personal preferences

Answer 55

* Creativity begins * Child will use adjectives and similes (descriptive features) * May use phonological features, such as rhyme, rhythm and alliteration

Answer 56

•Around secondary school age -more academic style essays •Formal stage •3rd person voice

Answer 57

Girls are more likely to ask adult’s help in activities such as jigsaws

Answer 58

Boys are more likely to use imperatives during pretend play than girls

Answer 59

Girls often try to negotiate a settlement to a play dispute

Answer 60

* ”Too hard” * Highly demanding but not responsive * Requires obedience and following rules

Answer 61

* ”Too soft” * Low demand but highly responsive * Children may be spoiled, self-centred and not do as well in school

Answer 62

* ”Just right” * Moderately demanding and responsive * Children are most likely to be happy, capable and successful

Answer 63

* Few demands, low responsiveness and little communication * Detached from child’s life * Children may lack self-control, have a lower self-esteem and are less competent

Answer 64

* Being in a school environment can restrict a child’s imagination * In a relaxed environment they are free to be more creative

Answer 65

* Children are experimental and creative if they invert graphemes * E.g. b and d

Answer 66

Pragmatic particle ‘y’know’ often creates positive politeness and solidarity in spoken discourse

Answer 67

* Where we see collaborative talk, these researchers refer to this as ‘community of practice’ * This can link to shared knowledge, group membership, sociolect and convergence

Answer 68

•Story telling discourse involves: - orientation - establishing context - action - describing the event of the story - evaluation - assessing the story (often through hyperbole and prosody features) - coda - bringing the story back to the point/ending

Answer 69

There are societal expectations of women to speak less than men, so if a woman speaks the same amount as a man, she is perceived as being too verbose

Answer 70

``` Women friends (in contrast to men friends) much enjoy the jointly developed floor, having no problem with understanding utterances produced simultaneously -there are two types of floor - one at a time and supportive, simultaneous speech ```

Answer 71

Addresses why and how new words come into the language and how others become unsuccessful •Factor 1: Frequency of use •Factor 2: Unobtrusiveness •Factor 3: Diversity of users and situations •Factor 4: Generation of forms and other meanings •Factor 5: Endurance of the concept

Answer 72

* The more often a word is used and the number of people who continue to use it will impact the word’s success * E.g. the term ‘dot’ in webspeak has caught on as the way to convey website address

Answer 73

* Metcalf maintains that words that attract less attention and comment are more likely to catch on than those that stand out or are exotic * Successful words are adopted and used unconsciously * Words and phrases that are too clever or associated with a pop culture movement tend to fade quickly

Answer 74

* For a word to catch on it needs to be used by more than one group of users * E.g. ‘leet’ is a special alphabet used by an ‘in group’ who use it to communicate on the internet - it’s not a word many people outside that group are familiar with * E.g. ‘spam’ has caught on and is not just used by a computing sociolect

Answer 75

* Words that generate other words are more likely to catch on * E.g. ‘babysit’ has caught on as a verb, but it also generates ‘baby sitter’ and ’baby-sitting’ * Therefore, successful words tend to be used as other parts of speech, e.g. “verbing” nouns, or have multiple meanings or can be extended as metaphors

Answer 76

* If a neologised word is no longer used, the survival of that word is minimal * E.g. ‘Glasnot’ was a word for the improvement relations between Russia and other countries after the Cold War - ‘Cold War’ is still needed as a historical term but ‘glasnot’ is no longer a concept

Answer 77

The discourse of the texts during the early modern English period were built on Latinate prestige forms, where lengthy and complex sentences were used

Answer 78

Commented on how the English language is shortening due to the influence of technology

Answer 79

* The language of women is primarily ‘rapport-talk’, where establishing connections and promoting sameness is emphasised * Men use language described as ‘report-talk’ as a way of preserving independence while exhibiting knowledge and skill

Answer 80

* Men tends to use simple, direct statements | * Women rely on ‘couching their commands as inclusive suggestions for action’

Answer 81

* In casual conversation, it is women who take on the role as facilitator * Men are less sensitive to the interactional process

Answer 82

Much advertising is oppressive to women and is very difficult to resist, even when one is a committed feminist

Answer 83

Parents use more diminutives when speaking to girls than to boys

Answer 84

Portrayal of women in today’s media is influenced by feminism with some reflection on the notion of a ‘postfeminist media culture’

Answer 85

* A type of knowledge and ideas power | * Power related to business

Answer 86

* A type of influential power * Power surrounding the relationship between groups, classes, or other social formations, or between persons as social members * E.g. social group power of a group of friends or church goers

Answer 87

Designed a model to explain the persuasive effect of advertising and what advertising makes use of •Synthetic personalisation •Member’s resources (tapping into the knowledge of the text received and creating an image of the product being advertised - often achieved through graphology) •Building the consumer (text producer does this by building an ideology and making it seem like the consumer has already brought the product/given to charity, etc.

Answer 88

* Informatives * Dierectives * Elicitation * Modal auxiliary verbs * Prosodic features * Open questions * Known answer questions * Direct nomination

Answer 89

The subjunctive adds formality to the texts

Answer 90

Language over time has become more informal

Answer 91

* ’Changes from above’ relates to changes made by socially dominant groups * In Early Modern English times, grammarians like Jonathan Swift had a major impact on the standardisation of our language, so we can identify this as a ‘change from above’

Answer 92

There has been a decrease in usage of the subjunctive form from 1600-1900

Answer 93

* The use of passive voice seems to have declined in usage in the later modern period * Biber demonstrates that it was more common in all registers in the 18th century than in the 20th century, by which time it had become mainly restricted to formal registers such as scientific writing

Answer 94

* Levinson | * Fries

Answer 95

* Levinson - now is normally the time at which the speaker is producing the utterance containing ‘now’ * Fries - in Early Modern English, ‘now’ was also used to refer to the immediate past

Answer 96

``` •Language changes according to the need of its users •This mainly covers lexical change •Includes: -new discoveries/learning/inventions -technological words -slang •E.g. cassette to cd ```

Answer 97

Language is as unpredictable as fashion and therefore changes in language are totally random

Answer 98

Random mistakes lead to language changing

Answer 99

* Changes in language are coming about through language contact * In the past this happened mainly through trade and invasion * Nowadays it might happen through social networking and immigration

Answer 100

Starting sentences with conjunctions is an informal style and makes writing sound conversational

Answer 101

* 4 different usages of dummy auxiliary/periphrastic ‘do’ * N - negated forms, e.g. ‘didn’t’ * I - inverted forms to formulate interrogatives, e.g. ‘did you see?’ * C - code usage to avoid repetition, e.g. ‘Susie ate the cake and so did Adam’ * E - emphatic usage, e.g. ‘I do hope you have done your homework’ * Has said use of do entered the language in late Middle English/Early modern English period * By 18th century do became an obligatory element in the structure of English

Answer 102

Pronouns such as ‘thee’, ‘thou’ and ‘thy’ were considered informal pronouns whilst ‘you’ was seen as formal

Answer 103

•Nielsen (2007): -research shown the age of people using email has gone up •Pingdom (2013): -research has shown the age of people using Facebook has gone up

Answer 104

* Crystal identifies that in Anglo Saxon times, the spelling of English was fairly regular * However, the pronunciation has changed frequently over the centuries, and the spelling has not kept up with this, which is one of the reasons we get so many irregularities

Answer 105

* Demonstrates the phonology influence upon the orthography of English * The GVS was a massive sound change affecting the long monophthongs of English during the 15th-18th centuries * E.g. ‘mice’ was pronounced ‘mis’ or ‘meece’ * Impact in pronunciation and spelling

Answer 106

* Credits some current misunderstanding of punctuation rules to the fact that before the 19th century it was customary to put and apostrophe before the plural inflection on foreign borrowed words such as banana - banana’s in every context * Can apply Truss when analysing varied punctuation generally

Answer 107

Linguist Lynn Truss has examined how there is a misunderstanding with punctuation, possibly due to the changing rules surrounding its usage...etc

Answer 108

Language changes to reflect society

Answer 109

Texting has added a new dimension to language use, but it’s long term impact is negligible - it is not a disaster

Answer 110

Kids texting are the most literate and best at spelling because they are able to manipulate the language

Answer 111

People join it and it quickly evolves into an ‘internet dialect’

Answer 112

Of all the mediums that influence language, film has the most effect through catchphrases

Answer 113

The ethos of 50 years ago was that there was one kind of English that was right and everything else was wrong

Answer 114

The internet is allowing more people to influence spelling than ever before

Answer 115

* Thought to be an invention of the devil as it would put false opinions into people’s minds * Ever since it’s arrival, people have been saying that new technology would have disastrous consequences for the language

Answer 116

English has been a vacuum cleaner of a language because of its history, e.g. Vikings, Renaissance etc

Answer 117

We respect foreign spellings these days

Answer 118

* The turn of the millennium (21st century) has seen the appearance of a number of overtly prescriptive texts * Can contradict Goodman

Answer 119

•Power in discourse is to do with powerful participants controlling and constraining contributions of non-powerful participants •These constraints are on: -contents - on what is said or done -relations - social relations people enter into in discourse -subjects - ‘subject positions’ people can occupy

Answer 120

Emergent writing is a form of communication