the war of independence Flashcards
british strengths
britain had 8 million people, the colonies had 2.5 million, 500,000 were enslaved people
most british people fully supported the war
britain had the support of at least 500,000 american loyalists
most native americans supported britain
britain had a 50,000 strong regular army
in 1775-6 britain hired 18,000 soldiers from several german principalities including hesse. more hessians were hired in 1777. they provided britain with trained troops who could immediately be sent to america.
the royal navy, with over 300 ships in 1775-6, ruled the waves. naval
superiority enabled britain to reinforce and supply its forces, move men along the american seaboard, and blockade and attack american ports. given the fact that 75% of americans lived within 75 miles of the sea, british naval strength was a crucial advantage.
lord sandwich, first lord of the admiralty, had ability and drive. He
embarked on a major shipbuilding programme that ensured that britain retained command of the sea, even when france and spain joined the war
britain had much greater financial and manufacturing strength.
lord george germain, who replaced dartmouth as colonial secretary in november 1775, co-ordinated the british war effort to good effect.
britain had several bases close to the thirteen colonies - canada,
newfoundland, florida, west indian islands - from which to launch attacks.
american strengths
most americans were committed to the ‘glorious cause’
although the continental army was relatively small, the militia turned out in large numbers in areas where fighting took place. they served as a kind of political police intimidating people loyal to britain. they also contributed as a fighting force both in battle and skirmishes. over 100,000 americans served at some time in the militias
britain did not entirely rule the waves. congress and the states commissioned about 2000 privateers which inflicted heavy damage on british merchant shipping
british problems
lord north was not an inspired or inspiring war leader
there was always the likelihood that france and spain would join the war to settle old scores with britain
britain was fighting a war 3000 miles away from home. took two
to three months for reinforcements and supplies to cross the atlantic. by the time they arrived the situation that they had been intended to deal with had often changed out of all recognition.
to wage war in a huge, unfriendly territory was a formidable task.
the terrain, and supply problems, made it hard for british forces to go more than 15 miles from a navigable river or the sea.
the british army was under-strength in 1775. Its real strength was more like 36,000 than its paper strength of 50,000 - had not been seriously tested in action since 1763. 1/4 of the infantry in 1775 was made up of men with less than a year’s service.
royal navy had been allowed to decay after 1763. lord north was
reluctant to provoke the french by a full-scale naval mobilisation. not until october 1776, after reports that france was increasing its naval forces, did britain start putting the navy on a war footing.
presence of hessian troops, who quickly established a reputation for
rapacity, convinced many neutral colonists to support the patriots.
the fact that native americans supported britain may have spurred many colonists to join the patriot side.
british martial law, requisitioning of supplies and seizure of property to accommodate troops alienated potentially friendly americans.
american problems
lacked unity - america remained thirteen separate states, each state guarding its own interests.
in 1775 america had to build an army from scratch. since many states
were slow to furnish their quota of troops, filling the ranks of the continental army was a constant problem. moreover, many troops enlisted for only a short time. washington’s army never exceeded 20,000 men; much of the time he had barely 5000.
state militias were less impressive as a fighting force than most
americans hoped. militiamen generally enrolled for only a few weeks and home before their terms expired.
no navy worthy of the name. eventually 50 vessels were commissioned into the continental navy, and almost as many into state navies. most were converted merchantmen, not ships of the line, and posed no real threat to britain. congress never appointed an overall naval commander because there was no proper navy to command.
lacked an effective national government. articles of confederation, adopted by the continental congress in 1777, conferred only limited powers on the central government . though empowered to make war, it lacked the means to wage it effectively.
economy was disrupted by the war - demands of the various armies plus the british blockade meant there was a shortage of many goods, affecting both the army and civilians. american troops were short of firearms, munitions, provisions and suitable clothing - caused morale problems
unable to levy taxes - congress could finance war only by printing and issuing paper money. as the quantity of paper money increased, its value decreased and prices rose
strength of british position in america:
leadership
lord north was a ditherer and his leadership was often ineffective. ill in 1776 and 1777, a crucial part of the war
king george iii was stubborn and was interfering with political problems at home
king george called for instant reinforcement, came from hesse, weldeck and brunswick, not prussia which was useless
uk military leadership - general rodney and admiral howe were good
general how and clinton cornwallis - poor or hampered by conflicting goals
strength of british position in america:
naval forces
royal navy - 340 ships of the line. significant because 75% of colonists lived within 75 miles of the sea
disconnection - took 3 months to get a reply to a letter. 40 packet boats sunk in the course of the war and some letters took 7 months to get a reply. responsibility fell to local leaders who were not always up to the job
strength of british position in america:
land forces
8000 troops in america at the outbreak of war rose to 50,000 by the end of the war. 1 in 7 eligible uk men were serving in the forces
discipline and fire power - good quality of junior officers , good improvements in use of light infantry. use of rifles developed use of mounted infantry for raiding and reconnaissance
few of the 8000 british troops in america were experienced. 1/4 of infantry had less than a years service
mercenaries often had discipline problems . small number of atrocities which were exploited by colonists. total of 30,000 german troops used
uk tried to use local loyalist militia, ‘the loyalist provincial corps’ especially as garrison troops and irregulars. eventually provided 19,000 troops and was named ‘the american establishment’ from 1779
made use of 10,000 native americans. socuts and raiders to attack colonists on the frontiers of new york, pennsylvania and virginia
made no use of negro forces for the fear of the impact this might have on colonist opinion
3000 mile supply chain was vulnerable to the french. did not control enough territory in the colonies to source supplies locally. may troop have to be used to garrison ports like new york to preserve supply line
the nature of the war of independence
washington had 3 strategy options - guerilla war, war of posts or to adopt an offensive strategy, confronting the british army with his entire force and fighting a major battle
opposed war of posts since such a defensive strategy would acknowledge superiority of british arms. it also meant sacrificing new york, philadelphia and wherever else the british chose to march. british occupations of american territory would damage morale, encouraging loyalists
took on britain in battle - ‘regarded battle as a summons to display one’s strength and courage; avoiding battle was akin to dishonourable behaviour’ - hoped that courage combined with the rightness of the cause would compensate for inferior numbers and experiences
washington’s strengths
kept congress fully informed of his plans
listened to people
washington’s weaknessess
made plans beyond the capacities of his army
chose some bad locations to battle
sometimes he permitted personal jealousies and emotional weaknesses to intrude on strategic and tactical considerations
american leaders
nathanael greene - top strategist
henry knox - artillery expert
benedict arnold - commander under washington
lafayette - frenchman who supported the american cause
general thomas conway - tried to oust wahsington in 1777
general horatio gates - hero of saratoga, involved in 1777 plot to oust washington
charles lee - washington’s second in command, favoured guerilla war, disreputable
british leaders
william howe - leader of british army in america, sympathised with americans and chances to defeat them
richard howe - admiral, commanded naval forces and had similar sympathies to william
burgoyne - defeated at saratoga in 1777
tarlton - used brutal tactics in the south
cornwallis - defeated in yorktown, 1781
battle of new york/ manhattan
august 1776 - december 1776
william howe planned to attack new york with naval support from his brother richard
washington was defeated by howe at battle of long island on 27th august - 2000 american casualties
washington was able to withdraw to mainland on august 29th. howe sought to negotiate peace rather than pursue military advantage
mid september - howe landed at kips bay and split washington’s troops.
howe’s caution again gave washington time to withdraw- leading to stalemate.
november 16th - british captured fort washington -3000 american
prisoners taken- led militia in full retreat across the delaware river.
howe offered a pardon to those who would swear oath of loyalty to george iii
in december, british forces seized newport, rhode island
outcome - american army in retreat - howe did not pursue them on march to philadelphia
significance - gave washington time to regroup, shows weaknesses in british leadership
trenton and princeton
3rd january 1777
washington was running out of time - on december 31st his enlistments would expire. this would cut his already small army of 4,300 men to a mere 1,400.
faced with soldiers who had not been paid, didn’t have tents, adequate food, clothing or blankets.
washington decided to attack the british- he recrossed the delaware 25th december and attacked trenton garrison- captured 1000 prisoners
washington then attacked princeton 3rd january
outcome - howe forced to relinquish his gains in new jersey
significance - washington rebuilt the army and took a more defensive strategy - not meeting british in pitch battle
britain’s plans
1777
british position still strong had two armies one in canada under
burgoyne and one in new york under howe. lord germaine has instructed them to co-operate.
aimed to drive down hudson valley isolating new england and meet howe and st leger at albany.
philadelphia
july - october 1777
howe ignores the plan to meet at albany. he aimed to capture philadelphia- he landed at chesapeake bay. howe transports his army of 15,000 across the sea rather than march through new jersey
september 11th - howe defeated washington at brandywine creek - 1200 americans lost but howe again missed an opportunity to destroy washington’s army.
howe captured philadelphia on 26th september
washington counter attacked at germantown on 4th october- failed but his plan was too complicated and he lost 1000 men
howe forced washington to abandon forts on delaware in november to allow british naval access to philadelphia
washington overwinters in valley forge
howe failed to win a decisive victory
burgoyne’s campaign leading to saratoga
september - october 1777
burgoyne sailed a 9000 strong army down lake champlain and recaptured ticonderoga on july 5th.
decided not to follow lake george and road to fort edward and gets bogged down on terrain- takes 3 weeks to go 37km to fort edward.
loyalists do not flock to join burgoyne. his iroquois warriors turn locals against them by attacking farms, killing several families. burgoyne demanded that the iroquois surrender their culprits, they refused and went home
he was attacked at bennington 15th august and 600 troops were killed
1600 british and iroquois under st leger had moved down the st lawrence and then along the mohawk intending to join burgoyne
st legers column of troops attacked at oriskany- native americans desert. st leger and retreated to canada.
outcome - burgoyne gets bogged down in terrain- fails to win local
support and gradually gets weakened- st leger unable to help him
significance - britain don’t understand the terrain - poor leadership
saratoga
september - october 1777
britain decides to press to albany.
mid august horatio gates replaces general schuyler as commander of north american forces - he digs in to albany
gates prepared defensive positions north of albany and american successes encouraged new england militia men to join gates. mid september - 7000 men
freemans farm september 19th- forces clash and britain is now 200 miles from canada- short of supplies facing a well entrenched army.
britian hears news that general clinton is heading his way- he attacks bemis heights but fails.
britain retreats to saratoga. clinton has not relieved him. britain negotiates surrender to gates- 5895 men get free passage to boston on condition they do not return to america.
congress rejects terms and kept them as prisoners of war
outcome - burgoyne underestimated terrain and enemy. howe and burgoyne do not cooperate. first major victory for rebels. howe orders clinton withdraw from highlands and to help burgoyne- but too is late. lord north seeks talks with ben franklin. silas deane re peace and offers to repeal coercive acts
significance - huge morale boost for america, britiain seek peace, french join war
valley forge
300 men died
lacked food, fuel and shelter
damp and crowded
troops suffered from typhus, typhoid, dysentery and pneumonia
under washington’s new leadership, conditions improved - more equipment, food and new recruits reached camp
baron von steuben increased discipline and re invigorated pride amongst troops
consequences of saratoga
the first time the rebels had defeated the british in a major campaign - great morale booster
on hearing of burgoyne’s surrender, howe wrote to germain offering his resignation
concerned about the situation in pennsylvania, howe ordered clinton to send reinforcements - clinton forced to abandon the highlands. clinton believed the loss of burgoyne’s army might have been accepted as a necessary sacrifice had britiain retained this crucial area
in december, lord north dispatched a secret agent to contact american commissioners benjamin franklin and silas deane with a view to exploring the possibilities for ending war
febraury 1778 - parliament passed norht’s conciliatory propositions. britain agreed to repeal the coercive acts and renounce the right to tax americans
a peace commission was appointed to try to negotiate an end to the war. the commissioners could accept the withdrawal of british forces from america and grant americans representation in parliament. however britain’s denial of american independence wrekced any hope of successful negotiations
france joined war
conway cabal
autumn 1777
an attempt by several generals and members of congress to replace washington as leader of the continental army and discredit him in the eyes of congress and the american people
took place after britain captured philadelphia, forcing congress to
relocate to york, pennsylvania. this loss combined with the american losses at brandywine and germantown, meant Washington was taking a lot of heat especially from thomas conway.
conway felt his own actions outshone general washington’s during the battle of brandywine. wrote to congress, requesting a promotion to major general, ahead of several superior officers. washington believed this would damage already low morale.
wrote to horatio gates, encouraging him to recommend himself as
a replacement for washington.
gates began giving washington a really hard time. he did not send news of his success at saratoga; he did not respond to requests for reinforcements. stirred up trouble by writing to the other generals including conway
washington’s troops were as stretched out as he could afford without gates’ reinforcements, - cost him fort mercer and fort mifflin, and gave the british time to reinforce philadelphia- losses which were blamed on washington.
lack of soldiers meant he was forced to bluff howe into believing he had more troops than he did, and congress and the other generals thought washington should be attacking in more force, and blamed his failure on this lack of action.
november 1777- conway turned in his resignation, but there was a group inside congress that supported the conway cabal. wrote to gates, telling him the army was basically lost without him and to prepare to replace washington. congress promoted him to inspector general, a position equal to major general. also created a
committee to keep an eye on washington.
board of war made gates their president. when conway discovered wilkinson was the breach in information, he wrote to Washington
and accused him of having someone steal his correspondence.
washington explained to congress, who then demanded to see the letter. gates and conway refused to hand it over, and the rest of the generals supported washington. congress ordered washington to hold a council, and required gates to attend, establishing his authority over gates and their support of washington. conway threatened to resign, and to his chagrin, congress accepted, and the conway cabal died.
