The State and Globalisation Flashcards
What was the beginning of the state?
The Peace of Westphalia (1648) ended the Holy Roman Empire’s supposed claim over omdependent German states and established the principle of the sovereign equality of all states.
What was the development of the nation state in the 20th century?
President Wilson established that state sovereignty is founded upon the right of self determination based on shared ethnic heritage in his Fourteen Points (1918), creating Austria, Hungary and more after WWI.
What did the Montevido Conference (1933) declare a sovereign state needed?
- Defined territory
- Permenant poulation
- Viable government
- Capacity for diplomatic relations
How did Weber argue a state requires?
“A monopoly on the legitimate use of violence in an area”
How did the end of WWII promote and harm state sovereignty?
- Many new independent states were established due to deals made by Colonial England and France, such as India
- The Cold War meant the the US and USSR often intervened in other states for their own benefit, e.g. Cuba or Hungary
How did the creation of the UN in 1945 affect state sovereignty?
Article 2 of the UN charter says the UN is based on “sovereign equality of all its Members.”
It also argued that state sovereignty requires the acceptance of other states: Paletinians, Kurds, and Catalans are all denied such.
What is the ‘Washington Consensus’?
States need to conform to economic liberalism to prosper in the international market:
- States need to attract global investors via low corporation tax and regulation
- States that defy economic globalisation risk capital flight
Give an example of the Washington Consensus:
Ireland drastically lowered its corporation tax to 12.5% to attract foreign companies and caused Apple to move its European, Middle Eastern and African centres to Dublin. Ireland saw consistent real GDP growth since 1996 (the beginning of the phase in) till 2008
What is the the negative effect of globalised markets?
Greater interconnectedness means that recession and ecenomic downturn can spred very quickly:
- Due to the US housing bubble and the bankruptcy of US bank Lehmann Brothers, the 2008 recession caused UK unemployment to go up 50%
- COVID caused UK GDP to fall by a record 20%
How has globalisation affected non-state actors?
Non-state actors have increased as a tool for negotiation, resolution and coopeartion. The UNFCCC organises yearly COP meetings to discuss climate change and the ICJ acts as an impartial judge of inter-state disputes.
Give three arguments and countergumant for whether economic globalisation has reduced poverty.
- Foreign investment in developing nations V Race to the Bottom
- Cost of consumer goods V Greater Inequality
- Convergence between the Global North and South V World Systems Theory
How does economic globalisation increase foreign development in developing nations?
Countries in the Global South are able to utilise their young virile workforce (70% of Africa is under 30) as well as low regulation (Bangladeshi corporate Impunity for workplace deaths) to attract foreign investors, offering jobs and bringing many out of absolute poverty.
McKinsey (2017) found that there are >10,000 Chinese companie operating in Africa, with one in Ethiopia employing 30,000 people.
How is economic globalisation a ‘race to the bottom’.
States compete to attract businesses by keeping their taxation and regulation as low as possible, causing serious human rights abuse and political unrest. Since 1990, 400 have died and thousands more injured from fires in Bengali sweatshops that could have been prevented with better regulation. However, income that could positively affect their lives has still increased: GDP in Bangladesh has gone up by 100x since 1960.
How does economic globalisation affect the cost of consumer goods?
IGOs like the WTO that discourage tarrifs and the globalisation of cheaper manufacturing techniques such as the product line have decreased how expensive goods are to make and sell. The world’s cheapest smartphone launched in 2016 for less than $3.50 and the GSMA estimates 54% of people now own smartphones.
How has economic globalisation led to greater inequality?
The wealth that is created by cheaper goods is conentrated into the hands of a very small group of people, keeping many others still poor, the top 10% of Americans holds 70% of the wealth whereas the bottom 50% only has 6%. Additionally, Bill Gates became the first centibillionaire in 1999.
How has economic globalisation caused convergence betweem the Global North and South?
Countries in the Global South have been able to capitalise on the free market using their natural resources to trade with other nations - the Jwaneng mine in Botswana has more than 165 million carats of diamonds: roughly £1tn. Additionally, Brazil produces 40% of the world’s coffee supply, accounting for 10% of their GDP.
How has economic globalisation caused ‘neo-colonialism’?
Marxist Wallerstein argues that globalisation locks states into permenant dependancy, with companies dumping cheap labour on developing nations - 80% of Botswana’s export economy is diamonds, leaving it reliant on foreign trends (decaying diamond market) and unable to develop an internal market undependant on foreigners.
Give three arguments and counterarguments to cultural homogenisation.
What is ‘cultural homogenisation’?
The spread of global consumer culture has undermined the differences between nation-states, creating a global-monoculture of conformity to a single culture.
Outline Naomi Klein’s theory of ‘commodity fetishization’
Part of cultural globalisation is the obsession with materialism and brand culture that causes us to neglect the unique features of our own culture.
Outline Benjamin Barber’s theory of the ‘McWorld’
The dominance of US brands like Gucci and Coca-Cola globally has caused peopleall over the world to define themselved based on (specifically American) brands and consumption, rather than their own culture - he calls this the ‘McWorld’ or ‘Coca-Colonisation’
Give two pieces of evidence for the ‘McWorld’.
- The biggest resteraunt chain in China is KFC, followed by McDonald’s and Burger King
- The top 50 most profitable films of all time were made in Hollywood
Give a criticism of the idea of the ‘McWorld’.
The positivity of this is deeply questionable, constantly accompanying greater levels of consumerism are higher levels of suicide (such as the Foxconn suicides in China) and greater relative deprivation, which Wilkinson and Pickett argue leads to greater levels of crime, distrust and drug and alcahol abuse, harming society.
Additionally, globalisation can make people feel disagentic, so when things go wrong, they retreat into local (national) identities, thus globalisation actually decreases cultural homogenisation.
How may Trump have effected the ‘McWorld’?
Trump’s ‘America First’ policy, as well as recent tariffs (allegedly based on incorrect calculation) have severely damaged the popularity of the US and their brands.
What is the idea of a global marketplace?
Contrasting the ‘McWorld’, the ‘global marketplace’ is the idea that globalisation has created a rich diversity of cultures (that all provide something) to choose from , rather than imposing American culture globally.
Give evidence of the global marketplace.
- Bad Bunny, a Portugese Latin Trap and Reggaeton musician, is the 9th most listened to musician on Spotify
- South Korean TV show Squid Game was Netflix’s biggest debut, gaining more than 100mn viewers in 80 countries in only 4 weeks
What is ‘glocalisation’?
Glocalisation is the idea that cultural globalisation isn’t as simple as American culture overtaking other countries’, local cultures will mould these brands and products to add their own spin.
Give two examples of ‘glocalisation’.
- Bollywood movies emulate Hollywood spectacle whilst introducing Indian glamour and romance, with Dangal grossing more than $200mn overseas
- American brands have adapted to local cultures with products like the McDonald’s lobster burger in Canada
How do the uncertainties of globalisation harm cultural globalisation?
Fear of war and global recession provide a strong base for populist and national movements that aim to highlight the loss of national culture, such as Orban highlighting Hungary’s Christian heritage, or Brexit in the UK.
Outline the ‘Clash of Civillisations’, in relation to cultural homogenisation.
Huntington argues that civillisations may seek to protect their own cultures in a globalised world by considering their own values superior to the West other civillisations’ brands that they consume, especially the clash between Western culture and Islam, due to the conflict between beliefs in individualism, personal liberty, and freedom.
What does Huntington point to as evidence that consumption of other civillisation’s goods doesn’t lead to homogenisation.
During the 70’s and 80’s, Americans consumed millions of American technological goods without being ‘Japanized’ and indeed growing evermore antagonistic towards Japan.
Give a contemporary clash between the West and Islam.
Huntington correctly predicted the rise of powerful Islamist groups that overtly oppose Western policy and values, such as Al-Qaeda (responsible for 9/11), ISIS, and Boko Haram, which literally means ‘Western education is forbidden’.
Give two pieces of evidence against Huntington’s Clash of Civillisations.
- Jackson (2006): this is an example of orientalism, Western typification of Easterners (especially Muslims) as untrustworth and inferior ‘others’ to justify their own exploitation and human rights abuses
- Huntington wildly overestimates levels of cohesion within civillisations, with the beginnings of a trade war brewing now, with Ursula von der Leyen saying the EU is preparing ‘counermeasures’ to Trump’s 20% ‘reciprocal’ tariff.
What is the liberal perspective on globalisation
- It challenges the primacy of the nation-state as more influence is given to groups like IGOs and NGOs, reducing the risk of conflict as states are less motivated by their own national interest
- They’re optimistic, it’ll increase cooperation as it creates forums and frameworks like the UNGA and UNFCCC, allowing us to solve global problems like poverty and global warming
What is the realist view on globalisation?
- States remain the primary actors on the global stage; despite increasing interconnectedness, the international system remain anarchical
- It won’t increase cooperation as states are egoistic and value their raison d’etat above all else; aditionally, it shouldn’t statesmen should act based on the interests of their country not the wider international community, especially due to relative gains
Outline the views of hyper-globalisers on the current nation-state
Due to globalisation (including factors like increasing trade links, the growing influence of MNCs, and the rise of influential non-state actors), the nation-state has increasingly lost control of its region and future, a ‘borderless world’ (Ohmae).
What is the future of global society for hyper-globalisers?
Global trends, like the Washington Consensus, reduce the abilities of individual nation-states, with cultural homogenisation leading to greater global governance and, ultimately, a world-government.
Give two pieces of evidence for hyper-globalisation.
- Increasing integration in the EU has caused many to have to conform to policies they don’t like, like open borders, which the UK was unable to resist for Bulgarian and Romanian immigrants in 2007
- Ireland drastically lowered its corporation tax to 12.5% to attract foreign companies and caused Apple to move its European, Middle Eastern and African centres to Dublin.
Give a counterargument to hyper-globalisation.
Since the 2008 recession (possibly even 2001 and 9/11), we have increasingly seen the state system turn away from liberal interconnectedness and cooperation, with increasing nationalist movements like Trump’s ‘America First’ and the UK leaving the EU - evidence of this inludes Trump’s tariffs and ‘Fortress Europe’ (a form of Regional egoism).
How do globalisation sceptics argue it isn’t new?
We have seen waves of globalisation before in the late 1800’s, with Great Britain’s commitment as a global hegemon to promoting free-trade liberalism and dramatic advances in telegraphic communication - however, this did not undermine state sovereignty; in fact, rise in rival nationalisms caused WWI.
Give evidence for globalisation-scepticism.
The collapse of the Doha Rounds demonstrates the persistence of state egoism of developed states in the face of opportunity to cooperate, not acting because letting down trade barriers would negatively affect them, even the bastion of the free-trade, the EU.
Give a counterargument to globalisation-scepticism
The rise in collective action problems (specifically climate change and terrorism) has necessitated state to work together, whether or not the want to, states need to assure that everyone is held to account to avoid things like the BP oil spill or Afghanistan allowing Al Qaeda to operate within - things like European Arrest Warrants and legally binding emissions targets (Kyoto (1997)) are becoming necessary.
What is the nuance of transformationalism?
- Globalisation irrevocably impacted state sovereignty, states have to engage with a new set of rules in a world where IGOs, NGOs, and MNCs have so much influence
- However, states simply adapt to the new environment, using globalisation as a means of advancing their own interests
According to transformationalists, how can states use globalisation?
States like China have capitalised on the global economy, becoming an exporting superpower and using this to further its own national interest, such as being unaccountable for the internment of Xighur muslims.
In response, smaller Asian states have turned to regionalism in the form of ASEAN to combat China’s dominance in Asian markets.
Give a counterargument to transformationalism.
It still believes in state egoism, states don’t just do what they can for their own citizens’ benefit - many states engage in philanthropic activities (96% of UNHCR funding comes from 14 governments and the European Commission) or activities that they believe in (EU championing equal rights), not for any benefit.
How has the internet affected state sovereignty?
The internet challenges the authority of the state in multiple ways:
- It helps people organise against the government (such as the use of facebook in the Arab Spring)
- It can radicalise people to supranational allegiances (such as Shamima Begum joining ISIS)
- Cyber-terrorism has become a much bigger problem for the government
How do NGOs’ effect challenge the nation-state?
They influence the opinions of the public, which often affects the state - groups like Human Rights Watch and Greenpeace act as providers of knowledge and lobbiers for governments; additionally, celebrities have worked to change the minds of the public, with the most notable in the climate change fight being people like Thundberg and Attenborough, rather than the actions of states.
How has nationalism hurt the nation-state?
Ironically, nationalism can lead to independence movements that harm the power of the state and its influence - the annexation of Crimea was on the basis that Crimeans saw themselves as Russian, not Ukranian; additionally, more and more new movements are gaining prominence such as the Catalunyan, Scottish and Kurdish.
How has political globalisation hurt the nation-state?
States are now forced into compliance by supranantional organisations, with little power to disagree
- The UK vehemently opposed free movement (specifically of Bulgarians and Romanians) but were forced to comply by the EU
International law also compels states to action, whether or not they want to (also known as ‘chain ganging’)
- The US triggering Article 5 of the NATO Collective Security Pact compelled other members to action, despite the fact that 10 of 18 members were not spending the 2.5% minimum on defence
How hasn’t political globalisation hurt the nation-state?
Lots of IGOs recognise and ensure the power of the state
- The UN is based on the ‘sovereign equality of all its members’
International law is super easy to break, even the most landmark agreed upon treaties can be ignored or left
- America has left the Paris Agreement Twice with no consequences
How has economic globalisation hurt the nation-state?
States are now expected to conform to ideas like the ‘Washington Consensus’ if they want a prosperous economy, those that don’t risk capital flight
- Norway increasing wealth tax by 1.1% in 2022 led to the loss of 13 super-wealthy and $594mn in tax revenue
Economic IGOs like the IMF impose strict regulations on states that take their loans
- Greece
How hasn’t economic globalisation hurt the nation-state?
Some states have capitalised on economic globalisation to increase their power within the international system
- China has become the largest exporter in the world and now uses the Belt and Road Initiative to further influence
IGOs like the World Bank have helped states out of poverty or debt without conditions, increasing their agency
- The World Bank has invested $4.7bn in grants and loans in Afghanisatn since 2002
How has cultural globalisation hurt the nation-state?
Greater empathy between individuals in states binds, what realists argue are, self-interested states who will gladly put their own citizens above others but now can’t. It also decays allegiance specifically to the nation state
- Protests against the war in Palestine and the Labour Party changing policy
The spread of American Liberal Democratic values weakens states that resist, with little option for other structures, lest they face aggression for ‘deviance’
- Cuba is adamantly socialist and still has an embargo on it more than 50 years later, even after the end of the Cold War
How hasn’t cultural globalisation hurt the nation-state?
National allegiance is still strong, with many nationalist movements gaining power globally
- Trump’s ‘America First’
- Le Pen’s French National Rally
States still generally act out of self-interest and often to the detriment of the global community and liberal cosmopolitan values
- Chinese activity in the South China Sea
- Russia in Crimea, Ukraine, Georgia
