Global Governance: Political Flashcards
What is a world government?
A unification of all states under one single political authority, with the same laws and institutions for all.
What is the issue with a world government?
- States have a far too wide a variety of government systems to agree on one to use
- States have a wild amount of tension that inhibit cooperation on such a level
- States have independent militaries that allow them to refuse enforced law
Give three issues that require global governance.
- Terrorism
- Climate change
- World poverty
How do different systems of government make global governance difficult?
- Rogue states have no intention to be involved in almost any forms of global governance
- Failed states struggle to be involved due to their lack of control of their region
- Powerful states can pick and choose what agreements to be a part of, rendering the system moot
Aside from governments, what is the main issue with global governance?
Its all voluntary, states have to opt in and can opt out if they want to with very little enforcement power to stop them, rendering the system moot.
What are the three main types of political global governance?
- IGOs
- International treaties
- Ad hoc meetings
Give 2 advantages and disadvantages of IGOs
+ They act as a permenant forum for debate which can sustain long-term projects; the UN’s SDGs and MDGs having spanned 25 years so far
+ Good for smaller countries with less power; the UN charter is based on ‘sovereign equality of states’
- Requires collective determination of states in goals; declining defence spending in NATO
- Bad for smaller states if powers become entrenched; UNSC P5 vetoes
Give 2 advantages and disadvantages of international treaties
+ States are more likely to follow agreements they have personally agreed to; Kyoto (1997) and NDCs
+ Allows states to work together without huge levels of comitment to one another; the Treaty of Non-Proliferation of Nucler Weapons
- States can choose not to sign or ratify the treaties; the Rome Statute, which gives authority to the ICC, has not been ratified by 3 of the P5, significantly weakening it’s authority
- States can leave treaties with no higher authority; North Korea left the NPT and gained nuclear capacities in 2003
Give an advantage and disadvantage of ad hoc meetings.
+ Allow states to quickly respond to emergencies and organise collective solutions; the G8 meeting following the 2008 global recession
- Agreements are entirely informal and unenforceable
What was the context of the creation of the UN?
The UN was built both in the wake of the catastrophic effects of WWII and the failure of its predecessor, the League of Nations, to stop it.
What was the issue with the League of Nations
It consisted of a limited number of nations and major powers had the ability to leave or couldn’t join at all.
What are the 4 main aims of the UN, according to the UN Charter?
- To maintain international peace and security
- To maintain friendly relations
- To encourage respect for international law and fundamental human rights
- To promote social progress and a better standard of living
What are the current challenges facing the UN?
- Climate change
- Human rights
- Limiting the spread of nuclear weapons
- Peace and security
- Promoting sustainable development
How does climate change provide the UN with problems? How have they gone about tackling it?
The UN has to deal with the dual problem that climate change has to be addressed by everyone and the growing populism paired with climate scepticism; organs like the UNFCCC have worked together to increase cooperation and the IPCC has tried to address climate scepticism with neutral data.
How do human rights provide the UN with problems? How have they gone about tackling it?
Human rights remain contentious: the level of enforcement, the agreement over their need, the agreement over specific rights like freedom of speech. The UDHR has been signed by all 193 states in the UN, acting as a non-binding symbolic agreement; more binding covenants have also been made, such as the Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966).
How have nuclear weapons provide the UN with problems? How have they gone about tackling it?
Fluid tensions between states makes nuclear capabilities constantly a problem, with the threat of mutually-assured destruction looming constantly; the Treaty of Non-proliferation of Nuclear Weapons has not been signed by only 4 states, non-nuclear states agreeing not to acquire nuclear weapons and nuclear states agreeing not to share the means of production.
How does peace and security provide the UN with problems? How have they gone about tackling it?
The number of armed conflicts is increasing, doubling since 2010 alone; the UN approves lots of military humanitarian interventions such as in Somalia (1992) or Rwanda (1994). Largely the ability to intervene has been variable, the Cold War was gridlocked for UNSC resolutions and the War on Terror has seen greater levels of multipolarity, inhibiting the global policeman.
How does promoting sustainable development provide the UN with problems? How have they gone about tackling it?
Global poverty remains a significant problem, though down to 9% in 2019; the Millennium Development Goals provided a significant success such as reducing global poverty and increasing education enrolment, with the SDGs continuing this trend with a greater focus on climate change. However, the SDGs have been strongly sabotaged due to COVID.
What are the principal organs of the UN?
- UNSC
- UNGA
- UN Secretariat
- The ICC/ICJ
- ECOSOC
How many countries are in the UNGA?
193 +2
What are the types of states in the UN?
- Those that are universally recognised as independent nation-states are given full membership, giving them access to voting rights in the UNGA
- If a state is not fully recognised but recognised by a majority of states, it may gain non-member observer status (currently only Vatican City and Palestine) where it cannot vote but is given the right to speak in the UNGA
Why does the UN focus on international efforts?
According to its charter, it is based on the ‘sovereign equality of all its members’.
What is the role of the UN Secretariat?
They act as the UN civil service, overseeing the work of the entire UN and its subsidiary bodies and agencies as a permanent, non-state affiliated group.
What are the duties of the UN Secretary-General?
- Acting as the UN’s spokesperson, useful in persuading states to act in the international interest
- Leading the secretariat and setting the UN agenda to be approved by consensus by the UNGA
Who were the last three Secretary-Generals and what were their focusses?
- Kofi Annan (1997-2006): the Millennium Development Goals
- Ban-Ki Moon (2007-2016): ?
- Antonio Guterres (2017-): climate change
What are the powers of the UNSC?
- To pass binding resolutions in international law
- To issue economic sanctions
- To authorise military action
- To decide whether new members should be recognised by UNGA
What is the composition of the UNSC?
- The 5 permenant members: China, France, UK, US and Russia
- Three African seats
- 7 non-African seats
Why do the P5 get extra powers?
Historically, the P5 were the victors of WWII so they are seen as deserving it after having won the war; on a more pragmatic level, to avoid ending up like the League of Nations, the more powerful states need to be incentivised to stay.
What is ‘great power unanimity’?
An argument for the need for the veto in the UNSC: if major powers can be outvoted by one another, it could lead to states reacting with resolutions that bring them into direct conflict. In this way. vetoes give powerful states the ability to protect their national interest without outright conflict.
How does use of the veto reflect power dynamics in the global system?
Its use reflects polarity:
- During the Cold War, the USSR and US often used the veto to challenge one another;
- Post-Cold War saw a period of US hegemony where they were the most frequent vetoer;
- Since 2001, muktipolarity has led Russia and China become more frequent users of the veto
Who is the most frequent user of the veto?
Russia has used the veto more than 100 times since WWII
When was the last them France and the UK used their vetoes? Why?
1989 - this may reflect their understanding that they are not as powerful as others and wish not to prompt questioning of their position.
When is the UNSC most powerless?
The veto makes it nigh impossible to hold any of the P5 accountale for their actions, such as the US invasion of Iraq or the Russian annexation of Crimea.
Give two examples of the UNSC being gridlocked by the veto.
- US has vetoed 17 different resolutions on the ‘Palestinian Question’, including giving them full UN membership
- Russia and/or China have vetoed 13 different resolutions on the Syrian Civil War, including humanitarian aid
How many peacekeeping operations have been authorised since 1948?
> 70
What are the different types of peacekeeping missions?
- Observer missions, to discourage violence and find blame
- Humanitarian intervention, such as those in Yugoslavia
- Mix
Beyond peacekeeping, what can the UNSC do?
- Organise peace talks
- Authorise sanctions
- Call for ceasefires
Give an important UNSC resolution.
Resolution 2118 required Syria to disarm itself of chemical weapons; though they then used ‘barrel-bombs’, it established the process of removing chemical weapons through the OPCW.
What are the possible reforms of the UNSC?
- Add new permenant members with veto power
- Remove veto power from some or all permenant members
- Increase the number of non permenant members
Give an argument and counterargument that we should add more permenant members to the UNSC.
The P5 does not reflect modern power dynamics in the international system - the UK and France haven’t been considered superpowers since the 1967 Suez Crisis; Germany’s economy is the third largest in the world and largest in Europe, 30% and 50% larger than UK and France;
- It’s relatively impossible to add new states, any state that one side wants will be vetoed by the other and the UK and France aren’t really doing anything - the US will veto SA as they are a member of BRICS and Russia and China will veto Germany as a member of the G7; France nor UK has used their veto since 1989
Give an argument and counterargument that we should remove the veto from the P5.
It makes powerful states unaccountable and gives them free reign to prioritise their interests over the international community - Russian veto of condemnation for annexation of Crimea; US veto of Palestine full membership despite 75% of states recognising them
- It’s impossible and impractical, states will no longer have incentive to stay and it will turn into the League of Nations all over again, also ‘great power unanimity’; Syrian Civil War
Give an argument and counter-argument that there should be more non-permenant members of the UNSC
This could make the UNSC more representative without stepping on any toes by reducing the power of the P5, by vote but not by veto - in 2005, China said more developing countries should be represented in the UNSC;
- Adding more members will only increase gridlock, which is the orginal issue with the veto, the UNSC constantly being in a stalemate between US and Russia (and increasingly China) - Russia used veto 100 times since WWII; Gowan called any calls for more members ‘diplomatic populism’ as it will ultimately fail.
Outline the UNGA
The UN’s Parliament in which every officially recognised state has an equal seat regardless of size or power; meeting yearly to debate and vote on non-binding resolutions.
What are the 6 main functions of the UNGA?
- Voting on non-binding international law
- Electing UNSC non-permenant and ECOSOC members
- Appointing the secretary general (based on UNSC recommendation)
- Considering and debating ECOSOC and ICJ reports
- Approving the UN budget
- Electing ICJ judges
What are the main issues with the UNGA?
- Slow decision-making due to ideological variety
- Often gridlock due to requiring a 2/3 majority for resolutions
- All resolutions are non-binding
What are the main successes of the UNGA?
- The UDHR, which has universal membership
- The MDGs/SDGs
- R2P
- Passed a resolution condemning the use of chemical weapons in Syria whilst the UNSC was deadlocked
- The granting of Palestine observer status and its joining the ICC and ICJ jurisdictions in the face of US opposition
How is the work of the UNGA streamlined?
The UNGA has 6 main comittees that have much smaller memberships that develop and put forward proposals for the UNGA to vote on.
Give the purview of the main 6 UNGA committees.
- First: Disarmement and international security
- Second: Economics and finances
- Thrid: Social, humanitarian and cultural matters
- Fourth: special political matters and decolonisation
- Fifth: administartion and budget
- Sixth: legal matters
What is the Human Rights Council and how has it been criticised?
A subsidiary body of the UNGA which elects states to promote and surveil human rights law compliance. As it often elects states with spotty records, Human Rights Watch dubbed it a ‘jury that includes murderers.’
What is ECOSOC and what are it’s key functions?
The Economic and Social Council is the principal organ of the UN responsible for economic security and development across the UN. Key functions include:
- To act as a forum for debate
- To agree policies that can be adopted by other UN agencies
- To lead on development goals like the MDGs and SDGs
What are the two activities under the purview of ECOSOC? Give an example of each.
- Specialised agencies: agencies with their own budget, leadership and assemblies, such as the IMF or World Bank
- Programmes and funds: ECOSOC directly manages and administers funds and programmes whilst the UNGA supervises, suchas the Word Food Programme
What was the importance of ECOSOC during COVID?
- ECOSOC researched the effect of the pandemic on development goals and warned that neglecting them when devising economic plans may reverse decades of progress
- WHO, as part of the COVAX programme, encouraged wealthy states to donate vaccines and coordinated research into the virus
- UNESCO investigated the effect on education, finding school had closed for 168mn children in the first year
Give two strengths of ECOSOC.
+ Oversees a wide range of impactful and influential UN bodies, like the IMF and WHO
+ SDGs and MDGs have given it greater focus, ability to monitor progress and agree future action.
Give two weaknesses of ECOSOC.
- There is some overlap between the roles of ECOSOC and the UNGA, such as debating reports
- ECOSOC only monitors human rights and can’t compel states to change
What are the two key functions of the ICJ?
- To settle legal disputes between member states
- To give advice on legal questions submitted ny authorised agencies
How is the ICJ different to national courts?
Both sides of a case must agree that the court has jurisdiction to have authority, rather than being automatic.
What are the three possible cases where states are subject to ICJ rulings?
- Two states agree to submit a case they disagree on to the ICJ
- States sign a treaty which specifies the ICJ’s authority in the case of disputes (+300 such)
- States sign a ‘unilateral declaration’ to accept all ICJ decisions in future (only 72)
Give 2 successes of the ICJ.
- After a dispute over territorial and maritime sovereignty, the ICJ forced Nicaraguan troops to withdraw from Costa Rican territories
- The ICJ settled a border dispute between El Salavador and Honduras
Give a failure of the ICJ.
The Chagos Islands has evidenced a weak spot for the ICJ: their ruling that the UK lacked sovereignty over the territory went ignored for 5 years and even when the UK declared negotiations, they’re on thin ice currently as Trump has gotten involved due to the shared military base on the island.
Make an argument for and against the UN’s success in maintaining peace and security.
UN provides organs for conflict resolution (ICJ - Nicaraguan troops in Costa Rica) and peacekeeping operations to prevent conflict (East Timor) and military intervention to limit damage (Operation Desert Storm in Kuwait against Iraq)
- In multiple cases, conflict resolution lacks the enforcement (ICJ ruled that Israel had to facilitate return of all displaced Palestinians, Trump’s plan for Palestine) and gridlock/the veto has inhibited intervention (debate over whether Rwanda was a ‘genocide’ let 800,000 be killed in 90 days)
Make an argument for and against the UN’s success in promoting human rights.
UN often partakes in humanitarian intervention either to improve people’s human rights neglect due to poverty (the WFP provides asisstance to +150mn people every year, (Standard of living (A25)) or intervene when rights are being abused (the removal of President Gbagbo in Cote D’Ivorie after he had refused to cede power after losing an election), also the UDHR is universal
- The international system is increasingly turning inwards since 2008, funding for the former is drying up (USAID which provided 40% of UN aid was cut by the DOGE) and intervention is spotty (intervention in Afghanistan, Iraq, and Libya lacked long-term aid, causing multiple conflicts and the return of the Taliban)
Make an argument for and against the UN’s success in reducing poverty.
Grants from the World Bank (India - $3.4bn for clean drinking water) as well as the work of WTO in encouraging developing states to enter the free market (Brazil - 40% of coffee) has pushed many out of both multi-dimensional and absolute poverty (8.5%), S/MDGs have provided a framework for the international system
- Some argue the latter push a neoliberal dogma that forces previously colonised state into a neo-colonial dynamic of dependency on foreign aid (Hong Kong’s Trade-to-GDP ratio is 400%) and COVID resulted in the first backslide in development in 30 years (97mn more living in absolute poverty)
Evaluate the degree that the ICJ/ICC have successfully reduced conflict
The ICJ provides impartial judgement that states can go to to avoid violent conflict with one another (Nicaraguan troops in Costa Rica) and the ICC acts as a deterrent of crimes against humanity by giving warrants for arrests (Netanyahu and Gallant)
- The enforcement of ICJ rulings and ICC warrants is entirely optional, with powerful states ignoring it for their allies (Trump sanctions on ICC for Israel) or states are powerless to enforce in the face of powerful states (Monglia not arresting Putin)
Evaluate the degree that UN peacekeeping operations have successfully reduced conflict
The UN can easily act when one state invades another, clearly violating the Principle of Westphalia and often uniting the international community in condemnation and cooperation - The Gulf War and the aerial bombing/ground offensive of Operation Desert Storm
- Whether these operations even happen is variable, either based on going against a state’s national interest (Russia and Ukraine) or lack of political will (Myanmar)
Evaluate the degree that UN international law has successfully reduced conflict
UN international laws have reduced conflict by disarming (NPT) or by binding states to act in the event of conflict (the universal Genocide Convention)
- Ultimately international law is non-binding (not every state has signed NPT and 3 new states have become nuclear since) and negotiable (the UN failed to respond to the Rwandan Genocide due to aversion to the term ‘genocide’ as this would require states to take action)
How does the Korean War demonstrate the effect of the Cold War era on the effectiveness of the UN?
The UN was able to organise a military force to support South Korea after the violation of the Principle of Westphalia, despite Soviet opposition, showing itself as a beacon of neutrality - the UN command provided over $12bn in military and economic aid from other countries, as well as tanks, artillery and ammunitions
- Ultimately the UN also served to push forth the ideological war between the USSR and US, backing opposite sides and facillitating and legitimising the US’s Cold War - the leader of the front, General MacArthur, even wanting to march further North against communist China
How does the Gulf War demonstrate the effect of the post-Cold War era on the effectiveness of the UN?
Once again, the UN provided diplomatic response followed by swift military operation in order to preserve the norms and laws of the international community - UNSC resolution 661 banned all trade with Iraq, followed by operation Desert Storm’s aerial bombing and ground invasion
- The response afterwards reflects the blind idealism of the UN during this era, ignoring the negative effects of their dogmatic actions - sanctions have led to epidemics of cholera and typhoid and Iraqi forces set fire to 6,000 oil wells and dumped millions of barrels into the ocean
How does the Iraq War demonstrate the effect of the ‘War on Terror’ on the effectiveness of the UN?
In the face of US dogma, the UN organised multiple activities to help the Iraqi people - UNAMI helped to protect human rights and promote free and fair elections in Iraq; Development Fund for Iraq helped process seized assets (+$1.7bn) for the new government
- Ultimately, the UN failed to achieve its main goal of preventing conflict and it’s aid wasn’t amazing either - The coalition invaded without UNSC resolution, violating R2P with no reprecussions; according to the Freedom Index, Iraq has the 10th worst human rights abuses globally
How does the Russo-Ukranian War demonstrate the effect of the post-‘War on Terror’ era on the effectiveness of the UN?
UN aid agencies have steadily helped Ukraine in these times - UNHCR gave $200mn in cash asisstance in 2023, as well as tarps, blankets and solar lamps to 600,000 people
- In a multipolar world, the UN has failed to adequately challenge Russia’s power, failing to prevent the war at all, reverse the annexation (though the UN doesnt officially recognise it) or hold Putin accountable - the ICC warrants and Putin’s visit to Mongolia
How does the Israel-Hamas War demonstrate the effect of the post-‘War on Terror’ on the effectiveness of the UN?
UN aid agencies play a vital role in limiting the effects of conflict - 600 trucks have travelled into Gaza a day, carrying food,shelter and medicine; UNRWA have provided refuges in all of their 64 schools, housing thousands of refugees
- The UN has always struggled to resist the force of superpowers, an issue in a multipolar world - President of Hunagry has ignored ICC warrants against Netanyahu and Gallant; according to the UNRWA, Israel has bombed at leat 7 schools and more hospitals, illegal under international law but nothing enforced
Outline NPT
The Treaty of Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (1970) has 190 signatories, its obligations can be split into two groups:
- Nuclear states (the P5 are the only states to sign) are obliged not to disseminate their means of creating nuclear weapons
- Non-nuclear states are obliged to make no effort to gain nuclear weapons
What countries have gained nuclear weapons since NPT came into force
- India (1974) - never signed
- Pakistan (mid-80’s) - never signed
- Israel (possible the 60’s)- never signed
- North Korea (2006) - withdrew (2003)
What was the objective of the creation of NATO?
NATO is a collective military security agreement that was set up to protect the US and its allies from Soviet invasion; however, it also served to keep the US’s allies politically aligned and not straying too far into socialism.
How has Article 5 been used?
Although the Collective security agreement has only been used once, by the US after 9/11, it exists (as part of the founding objectives of NATO) to protect smaller states that lack the military power to fight Russia.
How many states are members of NATO? Which border Russia? Why is the relevant?
32
- Lithuania
- Latvia
- Estonia
- Finland
These states are among the top 7 spenders on their military budget as a proportion of their GDP, Finland being the lowest at 2.4%
How much have different groups paid into the NATO budget?
- The US: 2/3
- France, Germany, and the UK: 1/6
- Everyone else: 1/6
What is the agreed guideline for how much NATO states should be donating and how many are?
Minimum of 2%; although this was only 10 states in 2023, it is now 23, perhaps due to Trump’s threats to leave.
Give three examples of Russia being a threat.
- Annexation of Crimea (responsible for the dissolution of the NATO-Russia Council)
- Invasion of Ukraine
- Creation of BRICS as an opposition to the West
What did Putin point to as evidence of NATO’s threat to Russia?
“Intensification of military activities, further expansion of the alliance, and moving military infrastructure closer to Russia’s border.”
Give three arguments and counter arguments to the prevailing usefulness of NATO
Protecting smaller nations V Smaller nations don’t care
Russia as a threat v NATO as a catalyst for conflict
Other threats V Theater for US interests
How do smaller nations legitimise the existence of NATO?
NATO was founded on the principle of protecting smaller nations from Russian imperialism, that goal (or at least that fear) remains - as of 2024, 23 of the 32 NATO nations fulfill the 2% GDP requirement, likely reflecting Trump’s threats to leave or the fear that, as the war with Ukraine ends, Russia may turn its gaze; the 4 countries bordering Russia are in top 7 spenders
- The level that NATO is able to protect smaller states is debatable, those most vulnerable are often left out to dry - Ukraine has been trying to join Nato since 2008 (6 years before Crimea) and still won’t get it after the war is over (Trump) and Bosnia and Georgia (Russo-Georgian War displace 300,000) have continually been under Russian influence and not been given membership
How does Russian threat legitimise the existence of NATO?
Russia, even since the Cold War, remains a threat - Russia has 5,600 nuclear warheads and openly flouts the Principle of Westphalia in Crimea and Georgia
- NATO only exacerbates tensions between Russia and Western nations - Russia invaded Ukraine due to the fear of having a NATO nation on its doorstep (loss of warm water port); Putin listing off ‘intensification of military activities’ (and 2 others) as reasons NATO is a threat
How do other threats legitimise NATO’s existence?
Threats aside from Russia have sprouted and caused increased fear, necessitating a collective security pact - Article 5 has only ever been used after 9/11; Turkey has been asissted twice, first to secure it’s Iraq border during the Iraq war and second to help protect against Syrian missiles
- Given the dominance of the US in NATO, these missions have often only been in the interest of the US - Ukraine remains contentious, with Zelensky saying Ukraine will “never recognise” Russian seized territories but the US giving in
