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A2: Global Politics - Edexcel A level > Comparative theories > Flashcards

Comparative theories Flashcards

1
Q

What is the origin of realism?

A

Developed in the 1930’s under increasing scepticism of the post-WWI liberal consensus politics, rising to prominence after WWII and the demonstration of ‘realist realities’.

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2
Q

What did Morgenthau see politics as?

A

“Politics is a struggle for power over men”

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3
Q

For realists, what is politics about?

A

Politics is about power and self interest, no morals.

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4
Q

Donnelly (2000) and the two core assumptions of realists:

A
  • Egoism is the defining characteristic of people
  • States operate within international anarchy
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5
Q

Outline the two forms of realism.

A
  • Classical (or endogenic) realists: the behaviours of states are national reflections of human nature
  • Neo- (or exogenic) realists: the behaviours of states is based on the anarchical system within which they operate
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6
Q

What are the three features of the realist view of human nature?

A
  • It is fixed, nature over nurture
  • Instincts ultimately prevail over intellect; ‘power after power’
  • As we are essentially egotistical, conflict is inevitable
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7
Q

What do realists believe people are?

A

“above all malignant, iniquitous, violent and savage.” - Machiavelli

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8
Q

What do realists believe is people’s greatest desire?

A

“Power after power” - Machiavelli

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9
Q

What are states to realists?

A

The most important actors on the world stage, given the futility of IGOs. They are also cohesive and coherent units that act rationally.

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10
Q

Give a quote explaining classical realism.

A

“The social world is but a projection of human nature onto the collective plane”

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11
Q

For realists, what is survival to the state?

A

The raison d’état - statesman need to take appropriate steps to perpetuate the life of the state.

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12
Q

What is state egoism?

A

The raison d’état is the survival of one’s own state - the survival of others is second if at all.

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13
Q

What role do morals play in realist politics?

A

None, Machiavelli argued for a dual moral standard (one standard for citizens and one for the state) where the morality of a statesman’s actions are decided by the benefit to the state.

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14
Q

For realists, what is the best way to be a politician?

A

Machiavelli argued one must act as human nature is (savage and violent) rather than what one wishes it to be (moral and kind)

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15
Q

Outline Hobbes’ and Rosseau’s contribution to neo-realism

A

Hobbes and Rosseau both developed the idea that, without a state, people descend into self-interest and savagery - given a world government is impossible, states naturally act in these manners in an international state of nature.

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16
Q

Outline Thucydides analysis of the Peloponnesian War.

A

The War was a perfect example of the security dilemma: Athens began to grow power in order to ensure their own survival and, in response, the Spartans took this as a threat to their existence - also demonstrating relative gains.

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17
Q

Outline the Melian dialogue

A

The Athenians came the Melos declaring their right of conquest. Their rationale is that they are powerful and so the Melians have no ability to refuse their demand; the Melian counterargument is that the Athenians have benefitted from and may benefit again from international moral principles so should not ignore them. Ultimately the Melians were exterminated for their refusal.

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18
Q

What is the importance of self help for states?

A

States have no higher power to call to when they are in trouble so must take all the necessary precautions (regardless of morality) to avoid such a situation and must do whatever it takes to get out of one.

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19
Q

What do neo realists see the alternative to increasing military capabilities as?

A

Some states do not have such an option so must rely on (granted unreliable) alliances with other nations, such as ASEAN or the AU.

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20
Q

What is statecraft?

A

The art of conducting public affairs

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21
Q

What are Morgenthau’s six principles of statecraft?

A
  • Objective laws based in human nature
  • All in terms of power
  • Constant concept of ‘interest’
  • Actions have moral significance but are not led by universal moral principles
  • Nations have moral aspirations but there are no universal moral standards
  • Anarchical international system
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22
Q

What is the issue with use of morality in declaring war?

A

It is important for nations to prioritize the wellbeing (even moral) of its citizens. However, calculations of national interest provide surer basis for if to fight a war.

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23
Q

How are realists often misinterpreted?

A

Realists are often associated with endless war but they often oppose it, seeing it as the complete last possibility; Morgenthau and most US realists opposed the Vietnam War and 34 leading US realists have been the stringent critics of the War on Terror since 2002.

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24
Q

What was Waltz’s ‘three levels of analysis’ of international politics?

A

“The human individual, the state and the international system”

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25
Q

How do neo realists argue that war is inevitable?

A
  • States exist in a system of self help, where they cannot rely on others
  • The security dilemma
  • Relative gains
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26
Q

What is the security dilemma and who came up with it?

A

Thucydides argued that states build up military capabilities to ensure their own security, this makes other states worried as they are weaker so they build up their own capabilities for their security, rinse, repeat.

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27
Q

Outline the theory of relative gains and its impact on international relations.

A

Given states’ biggest worry is the power of other states, they are primarily concerned with their position relative to other states so are discouraged from working together if it benefits the other party more.

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28
Q

What are the consequences of international anarchy? Give examples.

A
  • IGOs are ultimately limited as states have the ability to defy (Iraq) or leave them (Brexit)
  • States will also want to prevent IGOs from making decisions not in their interests (Israel-Palestine)
  • International law cannot be strongly enforced (Mongolia and Putin)
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29
Q

What form of polarity do realists favour? Why?

A

Bipolarity provides a system of bandwagonning that provides security as nation states know who their allies and enemies are rather than uncertainty. Additionally, the idea of a common enemy unites states and bypasses relative gains.

30
Q

What form of polarity do realists dislike? Why?

A

Multipolarity provides too much of an opportunity for growth, nations are always in conflict as they can feasibly beat one another and gain power (i.e. security).

31
Q

What are the views of offensive and defensive realists when it comes to multipolarity?

A
  • O: as states want power, there is a real likelihood of war if the balance of power breaks
  • D: as states want security, they will be reluctant to go to war if balance breaks regardless of the polarity
32
Q

What event demonstrates the realist belief in state egoism?

A

OPEC increasing oil prices in the 70’s (4x) and 2000’s (5x) despite the negative effects of consumer nations.

33
Q

What event demonstrates the realist belief in the security dilemma?`

A

The Cold War arms race served to increasingly protect each nation, mounting in Reagen’s Star Wars.

34
Q

What event demonstrates the realist belief in the futility of IGOs?

A

The non-use of IGOs by Qatar in getting a ceasefire for Gaza

35
Q

What event demonstrates the realist belief in the futility of international law?

A

Orban has invited Netanyahu to Hungary despite his warrants for war crimes by the ICC as they have no enforcement power.

36
Q

What event demonstrates the realist belief in raison d’état?

A

Putin’s annexation of Crimea due to Ukraine turning to the West and Russia’s need for a warm water port for trade.

37
Q

What event demonstrates the realist belief in relative gains?

A

The US’s patrols of the South China Sea do not gain them any power directly but does inhibit China from controlling the sea and the 21% of global trade that goes through it

38
Q

What event demonstrates the realist belief in the stability of bipolarity

A

The Cold War NATO and Warsaw Pact alliances allowed nation states to know exactly who their allies and enemies were and avoid direct conflict - it also strengthened the inter-state solidarity.

39
Q

What event demonstrates the realist belief in the instability of multipolarity

A

The mounting tension between different powerful states pre-WWI (e.g. Germany, France, the UK, Austria-Hungary) erupted with the murder of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and ended with the deaths of 40 million.

40
Q

What event demonstrates defensive neo-realism?

A

The creation of BRICS by anti-US nations to solidify power.

41
Q

What is the liberal view of human nature?

A

Although naturally humans tend towards rivalry and competition in order to gain the limited number of resources, this is contained by the faith that humans will resolve conflicts peacefully (harmony of interests). Humans also have a strong moral nature, grounded in reason and exemplified by human rights.

42
Q

What are the situations that liberals accept violence?

A
  • Self-defence
  • Countering oppression
  • Spreading liberalism to ensure future peace
43
Q

How do liberals and realists agree over their view of the state?

A

Both agree that world affairs are shaped by competition among states.

44
Q

What is the liberal view of IGOs and NGOs?

A

IGOs and NGOs are incredibly important in the international sphere, they can provide frameworks for discussion (UNGA), laws to rule by (UDHR), impartial judements (ICJ) and provide useful imformation for debate (IPCC).

45
Q

What is the liberal view of international law?

A

International law is possible (through the collective cooperation of states in eforcing things like ICC warrants) and desirable (to hold states accountable to basic standards such as the UDHR)

46
Q

What is ‘absolute gains’?

A

Liberals argue that, as states are not considered rivals of one another, they are encouraged to cooperate if it helps their own state, even if the other state still benefits more.

47
Q

What is ‘complex interdependence’?

A

By binding states together, globalisation increases the cost of war (thus decreasing the likelihood of war) as states will negatively affect themselves by declaring.

48
Q

How does globalisation bind states together economically? How does this affect war?

A

Improved communication and transportation technology (as well as the role of IGOs like the WTO) has promoted increased trade between nations - such as 32% of the UK economy being based on exports in 2023. This decreases war as, either you are warring with a trading partner, which will decrease your trade directly, or you are warring with a secondary trading partner, affecting you partner’s ability to trade with you.

49
Q

How does globalisation bind states together politically? How does this affect war?

A

We have seen increased pooled sovereignty, decreasing war by having impartial judgements of conflicts such as the ICJ and by cooperating with one another for collective security threats such as global warming or terrorism.

50
Q

How does globalisation bind states together socially? How does this affect war?

A

The connection between once-isolated states builds international empathy, discouraging politicians from going to war (Israel-Palestine). Additionally, greater diversity has increased conceptions of common humanity.

51
Q

How do realists and liberals differ on the role of make-up?

A

Whereas realists see the internal political and constitutional makeup of a state as irrelevant to their behaviour, liberals argue that democratic states are inherently more peaceful than autocratic states, also known as the Democratic Peace Thesis.

52
Q

How do liberals support the democratic peace thesis?

A

No two democratic states have ever warred with one another, though there have been wars between democratic and autocratic states. Additionally, democratisation has created zones of peace, such as within the EU.

53
Q

What are Kant’s three liberal constraints on conflict?

A
  • Democracy: Often have institutions that provide scrutiny or require the permission of to go to war (such as with Parliament denying Cameron to intervene in Syria in 2013)
  • IGOs: act as forums for peaceful conflict-resolutions (such as the ICJ forcing Nicaragua to withdraw its troops from Costa Rican territories)
  • Economic interdependence and trade: democratic states are more likely to trade with one another due to predictability so become more dependant; additionally, international free trade allows nations to benefit from one another’s resources without violence (such as the exportation of oil from the Middle East)
54
Q

Give an example of how Kant’s 3 build into one another.

A

Democratic states offer a more stable base for other states to trade (and become dependant on) rather than often power-hungry and supremacist autocrats.

55
Q

What is the idea of liberal interventionism?

A

Unlike realists, liberals argue that states should intervene in the affairs of other states, not just if it directly affects them, but also if the state is threatening their own people’s rights as to look away would weaken the idea of universal ‘human’ rights.

56
Q

What is the philosophy of ‘neoliberalism’?

A

Neo-liberals blend realist and liberal though by arguing that states do only care about their national interest but that joining IGOs can help to ensure that.

57
Q

How does R2P reflect liberal ideas?

A

The UN’s ‘Responsibility 2 Protect’ doctrine is founded on the idea of liberal interventionism and is guided by multiple other liberal principles:
- Action must not be for one’s own national interest
- All peaceful methods must not have worked
- Intervention must have been legitimised by a UNSC resolution

58
Q

What event demonstrates the liberal belief of human nature?

A

The end of the Cuban Missile Crisis showed how humans are capable of great violence but will be naturally drawn to rationality before it’s too late.

59
Q

What event demonstrates the liberal belief in role of constitutional makeup?

A

China is naturally more prone to conflict (such as in the South China Sea) due to the fact that they are a single-party state.

60
Q

What event demonstrates the liberal belief in states being binded together politically stopping war?

A

The ICJ forcing Nicaragua to withdraw its troops from Costa Rican territories in 2010

61
Q

What event demonstrates the liberal belief in ‘zones of peace/conflict’?

A

There has never been a war between two EU states, the EU prerequires democracy to become a member. On the other hand, according to the Geneva Academy, 45 conflicts are currently taking place in the Middle East and North Africa, an area with much lower levels of democracy.

62
Q

What event demonstrates neoliberal philosphy?

A

The use of ASEAN to negotiate with China and the use of the AU in protecting African human rights.

63
Q

What is ‘The English School’ theory?

A

Bull blends liberal and realist though, arguing that states are driven by security and self-preservation but that norms and values are maintained due to a collective recognition of the need for order as a means of creating stability. States do have conflicting interests but they also have combined interests, forming a “pluralistic international society” or a “society of states”, there is more variety than others give credit for.

64
Q

Give an event that exemplifies the English School.

A

Despite Russia’s mutual rivalry with Western nations, Russia and countries like Germany and France have signed the Paris Agreement to fight the collective problem of climate change.

65
Q

What is ‘The End of History’ theory?

A

Fukuyama posits that the end of the Cold War and the ideological battle between Soviet Communism and Western Liberalism had marked the end of ideological conflict, with capitalist liberal democracy declared the supreme system and every other country slowly going to adopt it over time. Additionally challenges from Radical Islam would be weak given its religious and cultural limitations.

66
Q

Give two trends that exemplify ‘The End of History’ theory.

A
  • There are 80 more liberal democracies since 1974 and 166 countries are part of the WTO which promotes free trade capitalism.
  • The world economy has quadrupled since the late 1990’s, showing the benefits of capitalism to the global economy
67
Q

How have Fukuyama’s ideas been criticised?

A
  • Liberal capitalist democracy isn’t necessarily the supreme system: capitalism is what led to the 2008 financial crash (housing bubble) and democracy struggles to solve long-term problems like climate change
  • China (a supposedly communist, undemocractic state with little liberty (of protest or press)) seems to have found wild success in ‘The End of History’, becoming the second largest economy and world’s largest exporter
68
Q

What is ‘The Clash of Civilisations’? theory

A

Huntington argues, similarly to Fukuyama, that the age of international political or economci conflict is over - dominant systems like free trade will not be challenged, but that it would be replaced by conflict over cultural differences which are much deeper rooted due to centuries of socialisation. People will also become more concious of their cultural differences due to globalisation increasing interaction, and seek to defend their rather than merge.

69
Q

To Huntington, what is the dominant force in politics?

A

Cultural differences have become more important than political or cultural clashes; however, given globalisation has eroded national identity, states have formed into 9 different ‘civillisations’ based on religion in an attempt to now answer more fundamental questions than what economy works the best: “who are we?”

70
Q

Give evidence for ‘The Clash of Civilisations’

A
  • There is growing clash between the West and Islam (two cultures he describes) with 9/11 and Iraq showing the high levels of hostility between the two and failure of nation building showing their irreconcilable differences
  • The war in Ukraine shows the divide between the West and Orthodox cultures - with Huntington showing that the Russians only want “Orthodox Eastern Ukraine” but not “Catholic Western Ukraine”
71
Q

Give arguments against the “The Clash of Civilisations”

A
  • There is great levels of division within cultures, such as the Sunni/Shia divide being shown in Shia Iran and Sunni Saudi Arabia’s support of different sides in the Syrian Civil War
  • Huntington argues that religion has become the dominant political force but 5/9 civilisations he names are not religious: Western, African, Latin American, Sinic (Chinese), and Japanese
  • His theory borderlines on racist: Indonesian Muslims have near to no cultural similarities with Algerian Muslims
72
Q

Name Huntington’s 9 ‘civilisations’

A
  • Western
  • Orthodox
  • Islamic
  • African
  • Latin American
  • Sinic
  • Hindu
  • Buddhist
  • Japanese

A2: Global Politics - Edexcel A level (6 decks)

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