Comparative theories

Question 1

What is the origin of realism?

Answer 1

Developed in the 1930’s under increasing scepticism of the post-WWI liberal consensus politics, rising to prominence after WWII and the demonstration of ‘realist realities’.

Question 2

What did Morgenthau see politics as?

Answer 2

“Politics is a struggle for power over men”

Question 3

For realists, what is politics about?

Answer 3

Politics is about power and self interest, no morals.

Question 4

Donnelly (2000) and the two core assumptions of realists:

Answer 4

• Egoism is the defining characteristic of people
• States operate within international anarchy

Question 5

Outline the two forms of realism.

Answer 5

• Classical (or endogenic) realists: the behaviours of states are national reflections of human nature
• Neo- (or exogenic) realists: the behaviours of states is based on the anarchical system within which they operate

Question 6

What are the three features of the realist view of human nature?

Answer 6

• It is fixed, nature over nurture
• Instincts ultimately prevail over intellect; ‘power after power’
• As we are essentially egotistical, conflict is inevitable

Question 7

What do realists believe people are?

Answer 7

“above all malignant, iniquitous, violent and savage.” - Machiavelli

Question 8

What do realists believe is people’s greatest desire?

Answer 8

“Power after power” - Machiavelli

Question 9

What are states to realists?

Answer 9

The most important actors on the world stage, given the futility of IGOs. They are also cohesive and coherent units that act rationally.

Question 10

Give a quote explaining classical realism.

Answer 10

“The social world is but a projection of human nature onto the collective plane”

Question 11

For realists, what is survival to the state?

Answer 11

The raison d’état - statesman need to take appropriate steps to perpetuate the life of the state.

Question 12

What is state egoism?

Answer 12

The raison d’état is the survival of one’s own state - the survival of others is second if at all.

Question 13

What role do morals play in realist politics?

Answer 13

None, Machiavelli argued for a dual moral standard (one standard for citizens and one for the state) where the morality of a statesman’s actions are decided by the benefit to the state.

Question 14

For realists, what is the best way to be a politician?

Answer 14

Machiavelli argued one must act as human nature is (savage and violent) rather than what one wishes it to be (moral and kind)

Question 15

Outline Hobbes’ and Rosseau’s contribution to neo-realism

Answer 15

Hobbes and Rosseau both developed the idea that, without a state, people descend into self-interest and savagery - given a world government is impossible, states naturally act in these manners in an international state of nature.

Question 16

Outline Thucydides analysis of the Peloponnesian War.

Answer 16

The War was a perfect example of the importance placed on national interest: Athens began to grow power in order to ensure their own survival and, in response, the Spartans took this as a threat to their existence - also demonstrating relative gains.

Question 17

Outline the Melian dialogue

Answer 17

The Athenians came the Melos declaring their right of conquest. Their rationale is that they are powerful and so the Melians have no ability to refuse their demand; the Melian counterargument is that the Athenians have benefitted from and may benefit again from international moral principles so should not ignore them. Ultimately the Melians were exterminated for their refusal.

Question 18

What is the importance of self help for states?

Answer 18

States have no higher power to call to when they are in trouble so must take all the necessary precautions (regardless of morality) to avoid such a situation and must do whatever it takes to get out of one.

Question 19

What do neo realists see the alternative to increasing military capabilities as?

Answer 19

Some states do not have such an option so must rely on (granted unreliable) alliances with other nations, such as ASEAN or the AU.

Question 20

What is statecraft?

Answer 20

The art of conducting public affairs

Question 21

What are Morgenthau’s six principles of statecraft?

Answer 21

• Politics has objective laws based in human nature
• International politics is defined in terms of power
• ‘Interest’ remains the same no matter the political context
• Political actions have moral significance but are not led by universal moral principles
• Nations have moral aspirations but there are no universal moral standards
• The political sphere is autonomous

Question 22

What is the issue with use of morality in declaring war?

Answer 22

It is important for nations to prioritize the wellbeing (even moral) of its citizens. However, calculations of national interest provide surer basis for if to fight a war.

Question 23

How are realists often misinterpreted?

Answer 23

Realists are often associated with endless war but they often oppose it, seeing it as the complete last possibility; Morgenthau and most US realists opposed the Vietnam War and 34 leading US realists have been the stringent critics of the War on Terror since 2002.

Question 24

What was Waltz’s ‘three levels of analysis’ of international politics?

Answer 24

“The human individual, the state and the international system”

Question 25

How do neo realists argue that war is inevitable?

Answer 25

• States exist in a system of self help, where they cannot rely on others
• The security dilemma
• Relative gains

Question 26

What is the security dillema, give an example and who came up with it?

Answer 26

Booth and Wheeler (2008): states build up military capabilities to ensure their own security, this makes other states worried as they are weaker so they build up their own capabilities for their security, rinse, repeat.

Question 27

Outline the theory of relative gains and its impact on international relations.

Answer 27

Given states’ biggest worry is the power of other states, they are primarily concerned with their position relative to other states so are discouraged from working together if it benefits the other party more - this discourages cooperation.

Question 28

What are the consequences of international anarchy? Give examples.

Answer 28

• IGOs are ultimately limited as states have the ability to defy (Iraq) or leave them (Brexit)
• States will also want to prevent IGOs from making decisions not in their interests (Israel-Palestine)
• International law cannot be strongly enforced (Mongolia and Putin)

Question 29

What form of polarity do realists favour? Why?

Answer 29

Bipolarity provides a system of bandwagonning that provides security as nation states know who their allies and enemies are rather than uncertainty. Additionally, the idea of a common enemy unites states and bypasses relative gains.

Question 30

What form of polarity do realists dislike? Why?

Answer 30

Multipolarity provides too much of an opportunity for growth, nations are always in conflict as they can feasibly beat one another and gain power (i.e. security).

Question 31

What are the views of offensive and defensive realists when it comes to multipolarity?

Answer 31

• O: as states want power, there is a real likelihood of war if the balance of power breaks
• D: as states want security, they will be reluctant to go to war if balance breaks regardless of the polarity

Question 32

What event demonstrates the realist belief in state egoism?

Answer 32

OPEC increasing oil prices in the 70’s and 2000’s despite the negative effects of consumer nations.

Question 33

What event demonstrates the realist belief in the security dilemma?`

Answer 33

The Cold War arms race served to increasingly protect each nation, mounting in Nixon’s Star Wars.

Question 34

What event demonstrates the realist belief in the futility of IGOs?

Answer 34

Orban has invited Netanyahu to Turkey despite his warrants for war crimes by the ICC as they have no enforcement power.

Question 35

What event demonstrates the realist belief in the futility of international law?

Answer 35

Trump leaving the Paris Climate Agreements in 2019 and his threat to leave NATO due to other nations lack of funding.

Question 36

What event demonstrates the realist belief in raison d’état?

Answer 36

Putin’s annexation of Crimea due to Ukraine turning to the West and Russia’s need for a warm water port for trade.

Question 37

What event demonstrates the realist belief in relative gains?

Answer 37

The US’s patrols of the South China Sea do not gain them any power directly but does inhibit China from controlling the sea and the 21% of global trade that goes through it

Question 38

What event demonstrates the realist belief in the stability of bipolarity

Answer 38

The Cold War NATO and Warsaw Pact alliances allowed nation states to know exactly who their allies and enemies were and avoid direct conflict - it also strengthened the inter-state solidarity.

Question 39

What event demonstrates the realist belief in the instability of multipolarity

Answer 39

The mounting tension between different powerful states pre-WWI (e.g. Germany, France, the UK, Austria-Hungary) erupted with the murder of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and ended with the deaths of 40 million.

Question 40

What event demonstrates defensive neo-realism?

Answer 40

The creation of BRICS by anti-US nations to solidify power.