Regionalism and the EU

Question 1

What are the two types of regional organisation?

Answer 1

• Intergovernmentalism: AU: states make decisions together and can’t be forced to comply, retaining sovereignty and being more democratic
• Supranationalism: EU: the organisation can force decisions and polcies onto its members, possibly having a non-state bureacracy, affecting sovereignty and having a democratic deficit.

Question 2

What functions does the European Union serve?

Answer 2

• Peace and Security
• Economic Union
• Political and Social Union
• Judicial and Policing
• Human Rights
• The Environment
• Poverty

Question 3

How has the EU been successful in maintaining peace and security?

Answer 3

Having just exited WWII, and the natural resources across Europe a key point of conflict during, France, West Germany and the Benelux countries established the ECSC which would later become the EU. It has used liberal principles like the Democratic Peace Thesis and interconnectedness to ensure that states are unlikely or unable to declare war, winning the Nobel Peace Prize in 2011 for its ‘six decades’ contribution to peace, security, democracy, and human rights in Europe - Countries with historic rivalries like Germany and France now would never think to go to war.

Question 4

How can one criticise the EU’s maintenace of peace and stability?

Answer 4

Poverty and conflict are inextricably linked, creating and perpetuating one another, ‘Fortress Europe’ and the internal free market makes it difficult for developing states to break into the free market and impossible for people to escape conflict into Europe - Pia Klemp, a captain in civillian SAR operation to recue people drowing in the Mediterranean Sea said the aim of European Borders “is not to protect people fleeing but to protect the EU from people fleeing.”; the Doha Rounds.

Question 5

How has the EU been successful in is monetary union?

Answer 5

In an attempt to foster prosperity in member states, the 4 freedoms of movement across the European Single Market (people, goods, capital, and services) was created alongside the Euro in 1999 (fully in 2002) - More than ⅔ of the EU is under the Euro and almost ½ of all of Europe; in 2015 alone, goods worth €2.8tn moved across Schengen borders easily.

Question 6

Give a criticism of the success of the EU’s moetary union.

Answer 6

Challenges to the advantage of interconnectedness and liberal economics which the EU advertises have continued and became especially prominent after the 2008 recession and many countries having to lend money to Greece to avoid a debt crisis that may have led to the end of the Euro. Additionally, not all countries accept economic policy, 1/3 live without the EU. Finally, although the at-risk-of-poverty rate has gone up by 5% since the 70’s this may be due to widening.

Question 7

How has the EU been successful in is political and social union?

Answer 7

The EU has also exists to help states work together to build binding international treaties and programmes to tackle problems that exist across Europe - 10% of the EU’s budget is spent on the European Social Fund to reduce unemployment, which helped halve unemployment after the effects of 2008; helped to regulate pharmaceuticals and encourage sustainability through banning appliances that use too much energy.

Question 8

Give a criticism of the EU’s political and social union.

Answer 8

There is fear of democratic deficit, the bodies that actually make legislation are supranational, also affecting state sovereignty which is being increasingly combatted by nationalist movements, far-right Patriots for Europe is now the third largest party in Parliament; additionally, part of the reason the UK left the EU was that they believed that the directives were becoming too overzealous and excessive, one of them being on the shape and ‘curvature’ of bananas.

Question 9

How has the EU improved judicial and policing services? Give a criticism.

Answer 9

Aimed to improve law and order cooperation across borders to ensure maximum safety, also to deal with international threats like terrorism
Evidence of its impact includes: The European Arrest Warrant allows police forces to arrest individuals for crimes committed in another member state, removing the need for extradition,
16,000 were issued in 2020 alone and one was used to catch the Berlin Market Bomber in Italy. But, the European Commission notes that member states do not always execute EAWs within the prescribed time limit.

Question 10

How has the EU been successful in promoting human rights?

Answer 10

Human rights agenda in Europe predates the EU itself, with the ECHR created 7 years before the EEC; additionally,
- The European Civil Protection and Human rights Organisation provides humanitarian aid, money, and emergency aid workers
- Tthe EU also has its own dedicated EU Charter of Fundamental Rights that sets out more specific rights for all EU citizens, such as the abolition of the death penalty
- Due to the great soft power of the EU, many countries have been willing to better their human rights protection in order to join, such as Romania which has improved minority rights, freedom of speech, and gender equality

Question 11

How has the EU’s human rights mission been criticised?

Answer 11

Their lack of means and will to intervene militarily in major human rights abuses, such as the genocide in Former Yugoslavia in 1995, relying on the UN and NATO to respond; additionally, not every country agrees with the rights they set out, Liberties reporting that the wave of populism has caused an “overall decline across the EU” of rule of law.

Question 12

How has the EU’s environmental mission been successful?

Answer 12

The EU has been able to take an especially successful role in tackling climate change, both due to its small size and relative similarity between economies (compared to COP agreements that have to balance the responsibilities of developed and developing states) - The EU has created the legally binding ‘20-20-20 by 2020’ goals
They have also taken a strong structural role in climate discussions, with observer status in the UN and a permanent invitee of the G20; they have also helped to create agreements like Copenhagen and promote Paris

Question 13

What are the EU’s ‘20-20-20’ goals?

Answer 13

• 20% cut in greenhouse gas emissions
• 20% of energy from renewable sources
• 20% improvement in energy efficiency

Question 14

Give a criticism of the EU’s environmental mission.

Answer 14

Carbon neutrality goals may be too ambitious, requiring states to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by at least 55% of 1990 levels by 2030, especially for fossil fuel-dependant states like Poland and coal; they are also still fighting climate scepticism, 1/4 of Norwegians don’t believe in man-made climate change.

Question 15

How has the EU been useful for addressing poverty?

Answer 15

10% of the EU’s budget is spent on the European Social Fund to reduce unemployment, which helped halve unemployment after the effects of 2008, leading donor of Official Development Assistance, providing 75bn euros in 2019 and the EU Recovery Fund included unanimous support for 800bn euro stimulus and decision to pool debt to aid recovery. However, the economic union also serves to mitigate poverty, poverty in Romania is 1/3 of that in 2000.

Question 16

How can the EU’s poverty mission be criticised?

Answer 16

It’s very Euro-focussed, often negatively affecting other developing states - the CAP has made it harder for some developing states to have equal footing with European states when selling their produce as it subsidies farmers and allows them to keep prices lower than those outside the EU, the Doha rounds also shows their unwillingness to change.

Question 17

Outline economic regionalism

Answer 17

Agreements like the USMCA are based on regional trade deals, often free trade, where states will agree to remove tariffs and trade barriers between one another; others, such as the EU’s, include regional protectionism, where barriers are put on goods coming from outside the region to foster an internal market.

Question 18

Outline political regionalism.

Answer 18

Agreements like the AU focus on tackling probems faced within the region, such as piracy or global warming; it can be deeper because it relies on shared cultural ties and a common value system, also benefitting from pooling sovereignty. The Arab League, for example, agrees common positions for the North Arican and Middle Eastern members.

Question 19

Outline security regionalism.

Answer 19

Agreements like NATO are based on the acceptance of a common threat, usually to borders, and the necesity to defend one another (usually a collective security pact). This can also involve common border policy.

Question 20

Give three arguments and counterarguments that regionalism acts as a building block to globalisation, rather than a stumbling block.

Answer 20

• Cooperation inside blocs v Dividing global community
• Supranational organisations v realist perspective
• Outwardly looking regional blocs v regional egoism

Question 21

How can outwardly looking regional blocs aid globalisation? Give a counterargument.

Answer 21

Outwardly looking regional blocs aim to cooperate with the international community, acting as a larger unit - ASEAN was built to stand against China, as it did in its most recent summit, where it called for China to halt all action in the South China Sea; AU, ASEAN, EU all have permenant invitee status to the G20, helping to create Paris
- Inwardly looking regional often display ‘regional egoism’, only being concerned with its members welfare and often aiming to maintain their sovereignty - the Arab League focusses on securing sovereignty in the region; EU’s CAP and the Doha Rounds

Question 22

How do realists argue that regionalism doesn’t aid globalisation? Give a counter argument.

Answer 22

Realists don’t believe that regionalism is having strong effects on things like state sovereignty and states not acting in their own self-interests - Brexit and Morrocco temporarily leaving the AU; ASEAN’s inability to force reforms onto Myanmar
- Some regional organisations have the power to force states to comply, or leaving isn’t really an option due to interconnectedness - UK tries (and fails) to block Romanian and Bulgarian immigrants; huge amounts were given to Greece as their debt crisis (and possible Grexit) may have lead to the collapse of the Euro

Question 23

How does coopeartion inside a regional bloc aid globalisation? Give a counterargument

Answer 23

Blocs acts as a ‘global village’ where similar states are more easily able to cooperate over shared goals, especially useful for coopeartion over climate policy due to developed-developing debate - AU aims to increase African independence through own peacekeeping force (work in Somalia); EU’s ‘20-20-20’ goals
- It divides the world into multiple communities, arguably worsening climate coopeartion by entrenching the debate - AU emphasizes that Africa emmits 4% of yearly global greenhouse gas emissions; AL was created to free states from colonial rule, entrenching division

Question 24

What is the liberal view of regionalism?

Answer 24

Cooperation is always good and regionalism is a beneficial way for like-minded states to do so in an increasingly interconnected world, where problems like terrorism and the movement of people can’t be dealt with alone.

Question 25

What is the realist view of regionalism?

Answer 25

Regionalism is ultimately futile as states will only ever act in their own best interests so will abuse or ignore the system to their own end.

Question 26

What are the 5 main regional organisations and the type?

Answer 26

- EU - all - USMCA - economic - ASEAN - political/economic - AL - political/security - AU - political

Question 27

Outline the creation and aims of USMCA.

Answer 27

USMCA was created by Trump to replace NAFTA, which focussed on reducing trade barriers on areas like agriculuture, integrating Mexico (increasing wages and discouraging migration) and promoting manufacturing in the region. USMCA maintained most of this but agreed to end the pact after 16 years and had a greater focus on regional protectionism, such as 0% tariffs on cars 75% made is North America.

Question 28

What are the strengths and weaknesses of the USMCA?

Answer 28

+ Maintaining state sovereignty by ultimately ending it and no desire to further integrate or widen + Helped bolster all economies, such as creating 17 million intra-regional trade jobs - Trump's still been able to threaten tariffs to get what he wants - NAFTA goal of decreasing Mexican immigration failed, 6,000 a day

Question 29

What are the goals of ASEAN?

Answer 29

ASEAN is largely focussed on promoting trade within the region, both to protect against Chinese domination and as a counterweight to Japan; ultimately aiming for an EU-style single market. Although, it does have broader aims like protecting and improving health (social), defending member's sovereignty (political), and using the ARF to resolve conflicts peacefully (security).

Question 30

How does ASEAN operate?

Answer 30

- The highest decision-making body is the annual summit for heads of state - There are also ASEAN ministerial meetings for foreign ministers to coordinate activities and create guidleines - The Secretariat-General runs activities and implements policies

Question 31

Give 2 successes and 3 failures of ASEAN.

Answer 31

+ In 2008, they agreed on deepening economic integration, turning ASEAN into a legal identity and committing all members to promote human rights and democracy + The 1992 AFTA has had to be signed by every single member - Failed attempt to pressure Myanmar into reforms - In the most recent Phillipines Summit, China continues to ignore the 2016 arbitration that they have no claim to the South China Sea - Some states aren't super democratic so the 2008 promise is a bit backhanded

Question 32

What are the goals of the Arab League?

Answer 32

Although originally created to free remaining Arab states from colonial rule, it now exists in both political (encouraging cooperation and to promote members' interests and affairs) and security (protecting members' sovereignty and promoting peace and stability), focussing mainly on coordinating policy.

Question 33

How does the Arab League operate?

Answer 33

It does not have supranational elements, agreements in the Council (meeting twice a year unless a special meeting is called by 2 states) are made purely based on consensus, with a General Secretariat doing the day-to-day.

Question 34

Give 2 successes and 3 failures of the Arab League

Answer 34

+ Greater purpose since the Arab Spring: suspended Libya under Gaddafi and backed UNSC air strikes, suspended Syria over repression of protests + Support on a lower level - ALECSO has helped structure members' school curriculums - Division over Palestine (its original goal) as it lacks decisive action and some states like Bahrain have recognised Israel - Division over government between traditional moarchies, such as Saudi Arabia, and 'revolutionary states' and Libya - Decisions only binding for those who voted for it - Joint Defence Council made near redundant

Question 35

What was the goal of the African Union?

Answer 35

Largely political, it was founded with the intention of giving the nations of Africa a united voice on the global stage, arguably having a security attribute in its defence against necolonialism. Its aims include reducing poverty, protecting human rights, and acting as Africa's own peacekeeper.

Question 36

How does the African Union operate?

Answer 36

It is loosely modelled of the EU, with a Pan-African Parliament which debates continent-wide issues and advises states, as well as a Peace and Security Council and a Comission that act as the administrative branch.

Question 37

Give 3 strengths and 2 weaknesses of the African Union

Answer 37

+ Promoted African independence, such as AU peacekeepers increasingly replacing UN peacekeepers, such as in Darfur and Somalia + Promoted democracy by suspending members aver coup d'etats, like Mali, only reinstating them when they are back to constitutional rule + The New Partnership for African Development acts as an anti-poverty intitative, engaging the G20 and G7 - Failure to control Ethipian forces in international conflict in 2020 - Some members are not democracies or are single-party democracies, like Western Sahara's 'Polario Front'

Question 38

Outline the concepts of 'widening' and 'deepening'.

Answer 38

- Widening: extension of membership to more states, experienced by the EU after the collapse of the Soviet Union - Deepening: increasing range of policy areas on which states cooperate and power of independent decision-making of any alliance or organisation

Question 39

EU integration timeline - 1945-51

Answer 39

The European Community of Steel and Coal is created under the greater desire for peace and security after WWII, comprising the ‘Inner-Six’ and designed to reduce trade barriers and increase cooperation in policy

Question 40

EU integration timeline - 1957

Answer 40

The Treaty of Rome sees the formation of the European Economic Community, with key policies like CAP and the CFP established

Question 41

EU integration timeline - 1986-92

Answer 41

The Single European Act (1986) begins the creation of the Single Market, with the abolition of national vetoes in most areas and beginnings of the monetary union.

Question 42

EU integration timeline - 1993

Answer 42

The Maastricht Treaty (1993) establishes the four freedoms of movement (people, goods, capital, and services) as well as introducing the Euro and establishing the subsidiarity principle: the EU can only act where the action of an individual state is insufficient to the interests of the EU as a whole.

Question 43

EU integration timeline - 1992-2002

Answer 43

The euro was introduced in 11 countries (and Greece in 2001), originally for commercial transactions only but coins and notes were introduced in 2002.

Question 44

EU integration timeline - 2003-08

Answer 44

The Treaty of Nice amends both the Maastricht and Rome Treaties to accommodate eastward expansion, with ten more countries joining in 2004 and two more in 2007.

Question 45

EU integration timeline - 2009

Answer 45

The Treaty of Lisbon decreased the number of areas which required a unanimous vote to pass laws in relation to, signifying an increase in EU power and decay of state sovereignty

Question 46

EU integration timeline - 2008-09

Answer 46

Sovereign debt crises hits Portugal, Italy, Ireland, Greece and Spain, reducing confidence in the international market due to the gravity of the debts and bailouts required to solve them

Question 47

EU integration timeline - 2016-21

Answer 47

The UK held a referendum on whether to leave the EU and on the 29th of March 2017, Article 50 was triggered; ultimately, leaving in the Customs Union and Single Market in 2021. This period also saw multiple terrorist attacks and the emergence of the EU migrant crisis.

Question 48

What was the original objective of the EU?

Answer 48

The EU’s roles and objectives have strongly changed since its creation: originally, it was largely an economic organisation focussed on the trade of steel and coal with the byproduct of possible interconnectedness and greater peace and stability.

Question 49

How and why has the EU taken an increasing political role?

Answer 49

The greater economic ties led the EU to adopt a more political role, with treaties like Maastricht (1993) and the principle of subsidiarity demonstrating this. This is as well as a general focus on social policy, like requirement of rule of law and human rights being a serious pointo of contention for Turkey's cadidacy.

Question 50

How and why has the EU taken an increasing security role?

Answer 50

Since 9/11, the EU has taken on a greater security role, with the Lisbon Treaty (2009) creating the External Action Service which implemented the Common Security Defence Policy, covering military aspects, as well as civilian crisis management. Additionally, the usage of European Arrest Warrants to arrest the perpetrator of Berlin’s Christmas Market in Italy, demonstrates this greater focus on security.

Question 51

How has the EU taken an increasing humanitarian role

Answer 51

The EU has taken an increasing role in humanitarian work, including working through the European Union Force (EUFOR), as well as the European Naval Force (EUNAVFOR) to engage in humanitarian military intervention, even without a formal military - this has included helping to train Mozambican armed forces to restore peace and protect civillians, as well as enhancing the military capacity of Ukranian armed forces.

Question 52

What are the three main theories of regionalism and state sovereignty?

Answer 52

- Federalism: Regionalism can and should be seen as a federal-style system with a central authority, severely decreasing state sovereignty - Functionalism: regional blocs develop to fulfill specific functions, there is minimal effect on state sovereignty - Neo-functionalism: although they develop for specific functions, they may gain other functions, effect on state sovereignty is variable

Question 53

Give an argument and counterargument that the EU is a federalist system.

Answer 53

Major (and the majority of) EU institutions are supranational (the European Comission, Parliament, Court of Justice, and Central Bank), most are not formed by democratic states and have the ability to enforce directives on states - EP currently debating controversial Digital Services Act, which censors free speech both within and outside the EU; the EU's freedom of movement and the UK - Inadequate integration for federalism - 1/3 of Europe doesn't live under the euro and Liberties reported that the wave of populism has caused an “overall decline across the EU” of rule of law.

Question 54

Give an argument and counterargument that the EU is a functional system.

Answer 54

The EU's chief aims are still those of today: the economic union, peace and stability, and respect for human rights - Romania improved minority rights, freedom of speech, and gender equality to gain membership; interconnectedness and democratic peace thesis - It's more neo-functional, it's objectives have changed to suit rising problems - EAWs and terrorism; the 20-20-20 policy goals and climate change

Question 55

What are the 5 major EU institutions? Which are intergovernmental and which are suprantaional?

Answer 55

Intergovernmental - European Council - Council of Ministers Supranational - European Commission - European Parliament - European Court of Justice - European Central Bank

Question 56

Outline the features of the European Council.

Answer 56

A decision-making body meeting 4 or more times/year and comprised of the heads of state and their foreign ministers (who have a veto), focussed on long-term decision, such as setting policy guidelines, resolving disputes, agreeing treaties, and steering foreign policy.

Question 57

Outline the features of the Council of Ministers.

Answer 57

A decision-making body focussed on the day-to-day and comprised of ministers from all member states, changing based on the issue under discussion; they vote on bills proposed by the European commission, voting usually has to be unanimous but the Treaty of Lisbon decreased the policy areas that require this.

Question 58

Outline the features of the European Commission.

Answer 58

The bureacratic branch of the EU, comprised of 27 comissioners (one from each EU state, but duty-bound to defend the EU over their home state) that proposes legislation and acts as a watchdog for their implementation - acting to promote and defend the interests of the whole EU.

Question 59

Outline the features of the European Parliament.

Answer 59

Acting as scruting for legislation, it is made up of 720 directly elected MEPs that organise based on political groups rater than nationality, like Patriots for Europe being the far-right eurosceptics.

Question 60

Outline the features of the European Court of Justice.

Answer 60

The EU's judicial body, comprised of 27 judges from each member state and 8 advisors to the court, with the ability to (given the primacy of EU law over domestic) disapply domestic law that goes against EU law, like the UK's attempt to restrict freedom of movement.

Question 61

Outline the features of the European Central Bank.

Answer 61

Responsible for the economic governance of the euro, specifically its purchasing power and therefore its price stability.

Question 62

How do the EU's institutions make it supranational? Give a counterargument.

Answer 62

Major (and the majority of) EU institutions are supranational, they focus on the welfare of the EU over individual states - ECB largely helped Greece (250bn euros) due to fear of the euro falling apart, focing them into austerity measures; climate goals (20-20-20) have forced coal-reliant countries like Poland to transition faster than they prefer - The lead organisations are intergovernmental and decide the direction of the EU and are comprised and headed by states representing their states - Germany blocks sanctions on Russian gas, due to fear of effect on small businesses; Hungary has continually used its veto to bloc sanctions against Russia

Question 63

How does the EU's role on the global stage make it supranational? Give a counterargument.

Answer 63

The EU acts seperately from its members and significant structural and soft power and influence - permenant invitee to G20 and helped to shape Paris; Romania improved minority rights, freedom of speech, and gender equality to gain membership - The EU lacks consistent foreign policy - Ireland has called for strong sanction on Israel whereas Hungary has left the ICC over their support of Israel - Although they have a figure head (Antonio Costad), ther is a lack of clear leadership - "Who do I want to call if I want to speak to Europe?" - Kissinger

Question 64

How does the EU's ability to force compliance make it supranational? Give a counterargument.

Answer 64

The EU has the ability to force legally binding directives onto states, whether they like it or not - EP currently debating controversial Digital Services Act, which censors free speech both within and outside the EU; the EU's freedom of movement and the UK - The EU lacks mechanisms to hold states accountable and ultimately states can leave - Brexit; Liberties reported that the wave of populism has caused an “overall decline across the EU” of rule of law despite being a requirement of membership

Question 65

How is economic stability and growth a benefit of deepening EU integration? Give a counterargument.

Answer 65

Integration has created the eurozone and single market, both aiding individual states' prosperity - in 2015 alone, goods worth €2.8tn moved across Schengen borders easily; the Center for European Policy found that Germany gained almost €1.9tn as a result of the euro's introduction, as the euro is weaker than the mark would be so made German goods more affordable abroad - There are significant economic disparities, with weaker economies suffering under the euro and richer states often beraing the burden - Greece has been unable to use devaluation to manage its budget deficit, increasing inequality; Germany estimates that if all its bailouts are used, then it will cost 650bn euros, 25% of their GDP

Question 66

How is stronger collective influence a benefit of deepening EU integration? Give a counterargument.

Answer 66

A more united EU would give them more power in global discussions and possibly allow them to act on the same level as the US and China, also encouraging other countries to adopt their principles - Romania has improved minority rights, freedom of speech, and gender equality to gain membership, EU has permenant initee status at G20 and helped to shape Paris Agreement - This comes at the cost of national sovereignty, forcing states into agreements they don't agree with - The 2016 Fourth Rail Package effectively forces member states to replace some of their routes with privately operated ones even though most are nationalised; UK tries to block Romanian and Bulgarian immigrants

Question 67

How are rights a benefit of deepening EU integration? Give a counterargument.

Answer 67

EU regulation has improved and protected workers' rights, as well greater envionmental protection - The Working Time directive lays out rights such as a max of 48 hour work week and health and safety; the EU's legally binding 20-20-20 goals - There is a large democratic deficit here, with multiple unelected institutions and low tunout to MEP elections - 2024 had a turnout of 50%; Farage's 'unelected bureacrats in Brussels'.

Question 68

How could EU widening restrict deeper integration and be beneficial? Give a counterargument.

Answer 68

Widening may make deepening more difficult due to the diersity in policy and interests, resticting the latter's negative effects, like weakened sovereignty - Turkey's human rights abuses would weaken EU consensus on human rights; UK attempts to restrict Bulgarian and Romanian immigrants - Integration may be good, for economic prosperity or for rights protections - the Center for European Policy found that Germany gained almost €1.9tn as a result of the euro's introduction (the euro is weaker than the mark would be so made German goods more affordable abroad); The Working Time directive lays out rights such as a max of 48 hour work week and health and safety;

Question 69

How would the widening of the EU increase power? Give a counterargument.

Answer 69

Would give them more power in global discussions also, increasing the power of the single market and so their soft power - Romania has improved minority and women's rights and freedom of speech to gain membership, EU has permenant invitee status at G20 and helped to shape Paris Agreement - EU is facing strong Euroscepticism that would be exacerbated by adding more countries to burden those like Germany - average incomes in the region today are still only 60-80 per cent of the EU level; Germany estimates that if all its bailouts are used, then it will cost 650bn euros, 25% of their GDP

Question 70

How would widening of the EU have economic benefits? Give a counter argument.

Answer 70

Would allow for greater competition and for businesses to operate in a largger market - addition of 10 new members since 2004 has more than doubled EU's global international trade to 5tn euros in 2023; European Commission finds that enlargement could lead to 24% GDP growth - There are budget implications, with more needing to be spent of CAP and structural funds, worsening euroscepticism - European Parliament finds that incorporating all potential candidates could up to €26 billion per year; European Comission finds that amount for structural funds is unlikely to increase

Question 71

What is the orgin of the economic and monetary union?

Answer 71

In 1978, the European Exchange Rate Mechanism was created to reduce fluctuating exchange rates, which had become a problem for trade. The Maastricht Treaty (1993) then took it further by beginning the process of the creation of a single currency. Finally the 1996Dublin Summit created the Stability and Growth Pact to ensure that EMU members had strict budgetary discipline

Question 72

What are the economic benefits of the economic and monetary union?

Answer 72

- Removes obstacles to trade by extanding the Single Market, thus reducing prices - Greater transparency over prices - SGP ensures economic stability and low inflation

Question 73

What are the political benefits of the economic and monetary union?

Answer 73

- Pooling sovereignty may increase member state sovereignty, especially in an already globalised market - The neutral ECB now controls economic policy, rather than the German Bundesbank - Greater integration

Question 74

What are the drawbacks of the EMU?

Answer 74

- Possibility for ECB to misjudge monetary policy or for governments to flout rules as France and Germany did in the mid-2000's, by exceeding budget deficit limit of 3% - Weakened state sovereignty in doing things like devaluing currency (Greece) - Unequal benefit (Germany) - Democratic deficit (ECB is unelected)

Question 75

Why isn't the EU a superpower, militarily? Give a counterargument?

Answer 75

The EU doesn't have a formal military, relying on NATO and so significantly weakening their power to intervene, also the Common Security Defence Policy is weak - didn't intervene militarily in the genocide in Former Yugoslavia in 1995 and in Kosovo in 1999, relying on the UN and NATO to respond; Berlin Market Bombing - The EU and Europe (especially under Trump) is increasingly trying to become less dependant on the US - NATO (which closely reflects the EU membership) is working on a deal to phase out the US in 5-10 years; the European Commission published the 'White Paper', setting out a vision of a European Defence Industry that doesn't rely on the US. However, ultimately NATO is not the EU and the EU will never have a formal military.

Question 76

How is the EU a superpower, economically? Give a counterargument.

Answer 76

The EU's single market and eurozone has hugely bolstered its economic hard power, both by bolstering individual states' and a united front on certain issues - 16 packages of sanctions against Russia, most recently targeted export restrictions on 53 new companies supporting Russia's military-industrial complex; Italy has seized yachts of oligarchs - 2008 revealed the weakness of the EU to fluctuating global markets - Greece borrowing 300bn euros - 2008 also put political strain on the EU, with a rise in nationalism weakening them - UK leaving and eurosceptic Patriots for Europe is now the third largest party in Parliament

Question 77

How is the EU a soft superpower? Give a counterargument.

Answer 77

The allure of the EU's single market has given it a great level of persuasion, both with individual states and other organisations - Romania improved minority rights, freedom of speech, and gender equality to gain membership; EU has permenant initee status at G20 and helped to shape Paris Agreement - There is increasing disrespect of EU principles within and outside the EU - Liberties reported that the wave of populism has caused an “overall decline across the EU” of rule of law. - The lacks a cohesive foreign policy to make it a superpower - Ireland has called for strong sanction on Israel whereas Hungary has left the ICC over their support of Israel

Question 78

What is the effect of the UK's departure from the EU?

Answer 78

Quite detrimental, both because it is generally a strong and active member of the union and its programmes, but also because the UK acted as a bridge between the US and the EU, helping to bolster the overall influence of the EU.

Question 79

How has regionalism addressed conflict?

Answer 79

Under democratic peace thesis, regionalism has spread and often brought with it democracy - Romania improved minority rights, freedom of speech, and gender equality to gain membership Some regional organisations have focused specifically on peace and security, for example, the AU has its own Peace and Security Council that responds to African conflicts, carrying out multiple peacekeeping missions, such as in Somalia. Economic interdependence between states in economic regional organisations also decreases the likelihood of war, due to the increased cost of declaring it.

Question 80

How has regionalism failed to address conflict?

Answer 80

Regional egoism leads blocs to value their own peace over others, essentially creating a new state system but between blocs - EU announces retaliatory tariffs worth $22bn against US (recinds them later) Regional protectionist policies also create poverty that leads to conflict - Doha Rounds and EU refual to remove subisidies Fear of ideological warfare - the Cold War was essentially conflict between two regional blocs

Question 81

How have regionalism addressed poverty?

Answer 81

Regional blocs have increased cooperation and both economic and political incentive to tackle poverty within themselves to increase the economic similarity between states and help everyone prosper - poverty in Romania is 1/3 of that in 2000 and, in 2015 alone, goods worth €2.8tn moved across Schengen borders easily Additionally, blocs that deal with significant poverty have a voice at organisations like the G20, where the AU has a permanent invitee status, allowing them to suit development to their own needs, rather than failures like UNAMI in Iraq

Question 82

How has regionalism failed to address poverty?

Answer 82

Regional protection limits high poverty nations' ability to break into foreign markets - President Lula of Brazil tells EU to 'give up' protectionism Regional egoism can lead powerful regional blocs to use economic hard power against smaller states, pushing them further into poverty - the EU imposed import tariffs on multiple Kenyan products after refusing to sign their Economic Partnership Agreement

Question 83

How does regionalism address human rights?

Answer 83

Some regional organisations are dedicated to addressing human rights for members - ASEAN's 2008 agreement committing members to promote human rights and democratic ideals Others are able to use soft power to influence external states - Romania improved minority rights, freedom of speech, and gender equality to gain EU membership

Question 84

How has regionalism failed to address human rights?

Answer 84

Regional blocs can acts as alliances that block human rights organisation - such as AU’s refusal to cooperate with (what it see as as) the Western-biased ICC, Burundi being the first state to ever leave Some have allowed members to abuse human rights due to the economic benefits or have made shallow promises - ASEAN's failure to adequately pressure Myanmar; ASEAN's human rights declaration is wild given the average Human Rights Index score is 0.45 and the lowest is Myanmar at 0.1, likely due to the ethnic cleansing of Rohingya Muslims

Question 85

How has regionalism addressed the environment?

Answer 85

By providing groups of like-minded states, blocs can more easily agree on climate policy - the involvement of the EU in the signing of the Paris 2015 Climate Agreements It may also be easier to deal with the variety of needs and possible responses to climate change by dealing with them in specific blocs - no more debate about the roles of the developed and developing world that caused the Kyoto Summit to fall apart

Question 86

How does regionalism fail to address the environment?

Answer 86

You create regionally egoistic bubbles that essentially entrench the developing-developed debate - The AU emphasizes that emphasizes that Africa emmits 4% of yearly global greenhouse gas emissions, but is deeply vulnerable to the effects so also strongly advocates for the 2022 Loss and Damage Fund

Question 87

How does political regionalism weaken state sovereignty? Give a counterargument

Answer 87

Supranational organisations are able to enforce (often overzealous) rules onto its members, weakening the primacy of the state, possibly requiring certain things for membership - UK tries (and fails) to block Romanian and Bulgarian immigrant; Romania had to improve minority and women's rights and freedom of speech to gain EU membership - Intergovernmental organisations are unable to enforce anything - ASEAN has largely been unable to force reform onto Myanmar, despite attempts - Even in supranational organisation, states still have the choice to leave - Brexit

Question 88

How does economic regionalism weaken state sovereignty? Give a counterargument.

Answer 88

Deep integration will weaken states' ability to make choices - interdependence inhibits war as its binds states together (also not great during a crisis like 2008) Shared currency can also reduce states' choice - Italy and Greeceere unable to devalue their currency to respond to 2008 - Economic prosperity can increase the power of states, either by increasing their individual prosperity or by being a united front - poverty in Romania is 1/3 of that in 2000; ASEAN was built to stand against China, as it did in its most recent summit, where it called for China to halt all action in the South China Sea

Question 89

How can security regionalism weaken state sovereignty? Give a counterargument.

Answer 89

Neo-realists, like Christensen and Snyder, argue that organisations like NATO are at high risk of 'chain-ganging' where states are pulled into conflict via alliances, exacerbated if they have a security pact like Article 5 - Saudi Arabian intervention in Yemen (2015) led UAE and Bahrain to follow suit as members of the Gulf Cooperation Council - Security regionalism can help states gain power in the face of domination - the Arab League focusses on securing sovereignty in the region - Security regionalism can also take the form of ensuring capabilities of states to defend themselves before the pact becomes necessary - NATO Security Investment Programme finances infrastructure like air fields and logistics