the impact of technologies and globalisation on continuity and change Flashcards
Globalisation
Each wave of feminism has relied on the publication of books, magazines and pamphlets to disseminate and hence globalise the feminist ideology.
Technology including print, media and digital technologies have accelerated the globalisation of feminism.
Social media technologies have facilitated the use of hashtags to disseminate the ideology e.g. #Metoo. Hashtag feminism, or feminist activism that unfolds through Twitter, has become a powerful tactic to mobilise global communities to fight gender equality.
Feminist have protested and advocated for women’s rights, some of these rights have been enshrined in United Nations Conventions, acknowledged at Conferences and ongoing campaigns such as International Women’s Day.
The United Nations Decade for Women was a period from 1975 to 1985 focused on the policies and issues that impact women, such as pay equity, gendered violence, land holding, and other human rights. It was adopted December 15, 1975,by the United Nations General Assembly by Resolution 31/136.
On 18 December 1979, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly.
In 1995 the Beijing Conference was held and adopted the BPFA as a platform of action, one of the most progressive agreements on women’s policy.
In the essay “Meeting at the Edge of Fear: Theory on a World Scale”, the Australian social scientist Raewyn Connell explains that the production of feminist theory almost always comes from the global North. Connell critiques the hegemony of mainstream Northern feminism in her pyramidal model, showing how theory/knowledge is produced at the apex (global North) of a pyramid structure and “trickles down” to the global South.The global North/South terminology differentiating the two regions according to means of trade and relative wealth emerged from the delineation of the North as wealthy and South as impoverished in 1980s. Initially, these terms were a welcome repudiation of the hierarchical nomenclature of “developed” and “developing” nations.In general, global North feminism refers to white middle class feminist movements further expanded by concerns about civil rights and contemporary queer theory while global South feminism focuses on decolonisation, economic justice, and disarmament. However, the history of colonialism demonstrates that this paradigm is inadequate because the oppression and marginalisation of Black, Indigenous, and Queer activists have been avoided purposely in the homogenous models of women’s oppression depicted by white radical and liberal feminists. US feminists, Sondra Hale takes another tack, emphasising that feminism in the global South is more pragmatic than the theory-oriented feminist discourse of the North
Japanese feminism
Feminism in Japan resulted from processes of westernisation that began with the opening up of Japan in 1853 when Commodore Perry led 4 ships into the harbour. Hence Japanese modernity became a specific colonial modernity, which had to rethink class and gender. This was evident in the 1870’s through a modernisation called the Meiji Restoration, where Japan industrialised and modernised by adopting the ‘best of the west’. This included providing an education for girls through the Fundamental Code for girls in 1872.The direct influence of westernisation as a force for globalisation continued in Japan, especially after the occupation of Japan at the end of WW2, where Japan was forced to accept a new Constitution.Feminism as a movement, struggled initially to gain traction in Japan, as it concentrated on one part of the population when in fact Japanese society is collectivist, focusing on the whole. Women were expected to be ‘good wives and wise mothers’. Japanese feminists during the first wave of feminism in the 1870s were inspired by the writings of Mill and Herbert Spencer and in the second wave of feminism influenced by the writings of Gloria Steinem and Betty Friedan.
First wave 1848-1920
characteristics of technology
*Printed media
→ Campaigns, protest
→ Newspapers (The Times, Daily Mirror, Daily Chronicles, Punch, Woman’s Journal )
→ fun fact: Amelia Bloomer publishes first ever woman-owned/edited newspaper ‘Lily’ in 1949
→ Books
→ Fashion
→ Bulletins, pamphlets
Positive impacts
→ the suffragettes were very successful in gaining newspaper coverage; whether positive or negative, the suffragettes succeeded in gathering attention, spreading awareness around the globe
→ the suffrage movement put the government under pressure (e.g. some newspapers like Daily Mirror and Punch were in support of the suffrage movement and questioned the use of violence from the authorities/suffragettes)
Negative impacts
→ most newspaper coverage was negative; shocking stories, such as women getting arrested or breaking the law were often used, aiding in the creation of many feminist mythology (e.g. feminists are violent, angry and radical)
→ Men tried to dismiss suffragettes as mentally disturbed and hysterical; media was generally quite hostile to the campaign
2nd wave 1960s-1970s
Characteristics
→ Protest
→ Campaigns
→ Manifestos
→ Books
→Magazines/newspapers
→ Advertising
→ Fashion
→ TV
→ Radio
Positives
→ Media directed towards women (e.g. Cosmopolitan Magazine) attempted to attract and keep an audience whose expectations were changing quickly (e.g. articles on child rearing/homemaking were considered outdated and condescending to women). This became an important form of activism that contributed to the women’s liberation cause/allowing women to participate in the feminist movement
→ Introduction of female sexuality/sexual rebellion; women can work outside the home and enjoy sex outside of marriage (this is encapsulated in the works of author Helen Gurley Brown, e.g. her book ‘Sex and the Single Girl)
→ Marriage/having children no longer necessary ; divorce was now a ‘fact of life’, not a scandal, the concept of motherhood was broadened
→ Feminism in this period ran alongside other movements such as civil rights/anti-war movements, broadening feminist discussion from suffrage to a wide variety of issues such as domestic violence, rape, the workplace, sexuality, etc.
Negatives
→ Feminism was sometimes overshadowed by other movements
→ Many negative mythology was created and enforced at this time, spread largely by technology (e.g. all feminists are radical, violent, lesbian, unshaven, etc)
→ movement was later said to be targeted towards white, heterosexual women
Third wave 1990s onwards
Characteristics
→ Social Media, hashtags
→ Marches
→ Journalism/advertising
→ Movies/TV
→ News
→ Books, magazines
→ Fashion
Positives
→ Emergence of ‘Liberal Cyberfeminism’; computer as a liberating utopia that goes beyond the polarity of male/female, hetero/homosexual, where race, gender and sexuality become obsolete. This new ‘cyberculture’, influenced by liberal feminism, postmodernism and queer theory, is seen as a new frontier for sexual activism and rebellion
→ movement grew as response of failures/criticism of 2nd wave
→ much broader and encompasses all women, regardless of age, race, gender, location, body type etc.
→ focus on eradicating gendered language and generalised terms (e.g. ‘the universal woman’
→ Movements such as ‘everyday sexism project’, ‘orgasm gap’, #MeToo spreads awareness of gender inequality in contemporary society, giving a voice to the disempowered and providing justice for women
→ social media allows not only feminists and other activists, but anyone, to join into discussions
→ focus on men as well, not just women
Negatives
→ The term feminist is automatically applied to women only, leaving out men
→ In the media, the term ‘feminism’ is often opposed to the term ‘family’, leading to the idea that feminists must be career focused, not family women, leading to many young women rejecting the idea of feminism (anti-feminist women)
→ Rise of victim/conservative feminism
