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The Human Senses Flashcards

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1
Q

What does sensation refer to?

A

The passive prices of detecting environmental stimuli through our various senses

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2
Q

What does perception refer to?

A

The active process of receiving, re-organising, and interpreting raw sensory information

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3
Q

When does sensation occur?

A

Occurs when a sensory receptor become stimulating, absorbs energy from the stimulus itself, and converts it into neural impulses that the brain can interpret

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4
Q

When are we able to sense a stimulus?

A

When it reaches an absolute threshold

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5
Q

What is an absolute threshold?

A

The point at which energy from a serious becomes detectable

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6
Q

When can we detect ranges in the strength of a stimulus?

A

If the strength of the stimulus exceeds our difference threshold

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7
Q

What is the difference threshold?

A

The minimum change in stimulus intensity need for us to notice at least 50% of the time that a changes occurred

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8
Q

What does Weber’s Law state?

A

The magnitude of the just noticeable difference is proportional to the intensity of the original stimulus

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9
Q

What is background sensory information?

A

Noise

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10
Q

Define criterion

A

The level of confidence in filtering noise and judging its importance

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11
Q

What does the signal detection theory explain?

A

The detection of the stimulus depends not only on the intensity of that stimulus, but also the physical and psychological state of the individual

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12
Q

What is sensory adaptation?

A

The decrease in sensitivity to and and changing stimulus

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13
Q

What is psychophysics?

A

The quantified study of such sensations in the stimuli that produce them

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14
Q

What initiates the process of sensation?

A

Sensory receptors

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15
Q

And in telling stimulus alters the membrane permeability of the sensory receptors nerve ending stimulating a?

A

Receptor potential

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16
Q

What does the receptor potential generate? Where does this lead?

A

An action potential; it really is the information to the CNS

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17
Q

What is sensory transduction?

A

The transformation of physical energy from the stimulus into an electrical message

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18
Q

What are the two types of nerve endings?

A

Encapsulated and free nerve ending

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19
Q

What is an encapsulated sensory receptor nerve ending?

A

It is enclosed by a structure

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20
Q

What type of nerve ending is nonencapsulated?

A

A free nerve ending

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21
Q

What three traits classify sensory nerve receptors?

A

Conduction speed, location, and modality

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22
Q

What are the two types of conduction speeds for sensory receptor cells?

A

Phasic receptors and tonic receptors

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23
Q

What are phasic receptors?

A

Rapidly adapting receptors that respond quickly and entirely to a stimulus, but stop responding even at the stimulus remains constant

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24
Q

What are tonic receptors?

A

Slowly adapting receptors that respondent gradually to a stimulus and provide a continuous signal for the entire duration of the stimulus

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25
Q

What are the three types of sensory receptors based on location?

A

Exteroceptors, interoceptors, and proprioceptors

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26
Q

What are exteroceptors?

A

They are located close to the body surface and are specialised to detect external stimuli such as tactile, gustatorily, visual, olfactory, and auditory stimuli

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27
Q

What are interceptors?

A

Receptors located within internal organs and are specialised to detect sensory information concerning the bodies internal environment such as blood pressure, pH levels, dissolved gas concentrations

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28
Q

What are proprioceptors?

A

Receptors located in joints, muscles, tendons, and the stimulus structures of the inner ear. They detect specific movement and positioning required for spatial reasoning and balance

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29
Q

What are the five types of receptors according to stimulus modality?

A

Chemoreceptors, mechanoreceptors, nocireceptors, photoreceptors, and Thermoreceptors

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30
Q

What do chemoreceptors do?

A

They detect chemical stimuli and playing important role in olfaction and gustation

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31
Q

What do mechanoreceptors do?

A

They detect stimuli

That physically deformed the tissue in which resides such as pressure or vibration

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32
Q

What do nocireceptors do?

A

There are sensitive to damaging and painful stimuli and are almost always tonic

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33
Q

What do photoreceptors do?

A

They respond to electromagnetic radiation and are essential for sight

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34
Q

What do thermoreceptors do?

A

They detect warmth and cold and almost always phasic

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35
Q

What is a sensory pathway?

A

It describes the stimulus induced relaying of information to the central nervous system for complex integration and perception

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36
Q

What three types of neurons are involved in the sensory pathway?

A

Primary, secondary, and tertiary neurons

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37
Q

What are primary neurons? Where are they located? Where do they take their information?

A

Afferent or sensory neurons; they are located in the peripheral nervous system; they received the news information and relay it to either the spinal cord on the brainstem

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38
Q

What takes our information received by the primary neurons? Where did these neurons send the information?

A

Secondary neurons;that information is relayed to the thalamus for processing and redirected to the correct sensory area of the cerebral cortex

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39
Q

What type of neuron redirects information from the thalamus to the cerebral cortex?

A

Tertiary neuron

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40
Q

Why are sensory pathways able to inform the the cerebral cortex about exactly what type of stimulus is been experience and where?

A

Because the brain maps the location of each receptor, and because each receptor is activated only by a particular stimulus

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41
Q

What is perception?

A

Organisation and interpretation of sensory information that allows us to make sense of our surrounding environment

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42
Q

What is top-down processing?

A

Describes the use of previous knowledge and contextual information in pattern recognition

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43
Q

What type of processing explains why it is much easier to understand messy handwriting when reading a sentence rather than an isolated word?

A

Top down processing

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44
Q

What does bottom up processing suggest?

A

Postulates that the perception begins with the stimulus itself, using bits and pieces of sensory information to generate a larger picture

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45
Q

Because bottom up processing requires the interpretation of incoming stimuli, what is it often referred to?

A

Data driven processing

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46
Q

What type of processing do we use to perceive our environment accurately?

A

Both bottom up and top down processing

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47
Q

What for characteristics does perceptual organisation rely on?

A

Depth, motion, constancy, and form

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48
Q

What does depth perception enable one to estimate?

A

An object’s distance

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49
Q

From what two types of cues is depth perception determined?

A

Monocular cues and binocular cues

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50
Q

What type of cues are two-dimensional cues that one eye can detect?

A

Monocular cues

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51
Q

What are examples of monocular cues?

A

Perception is based on relative size, interposition, texture, shading, and height

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52
Q

What is relative size?

A

Compares objects assumed to be similar in size in order to discern distance

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53
Q

Relative size indicates that larger objects are perceived to be…… Than smaller objects

A

Closer

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54
Q

What is interposition?

A

Overlap

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55
Q

In what monocular cue does one person with a partially blocked object to be further away than the blocking object?

A

Interposition

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56
Q

How does texture act as a monocular cue?

A

As the texture of an object becomes more detailed, one perceives it to be closer than a smoother object.

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57
Q

Differences in……… Produce depth perceptions based on our assumption that light comes from above, resulting in images that either protrude toward or away from us.

A

Shading

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58
Q

Finally based on our perception of the horizon, objects located………… In our visual fields are perceived to be………… than objects located closer to the bottom of our visual field.

A

Closer; further away

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59
Q

How many eyes are needed for monocular cues which allow one to perceive three-dimensional information from two-dimensional images?

A

One eye

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60
Q

How many eyes do binocular cues depend on?

A

Both eyes

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61
Q

Because our eyes are about 2 1/2 inches apart, each eye receives slightly different information resulting in a difference in retinal images, what are the two terms for this difference?

A

Retinal disparity or binocular disparity

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62
Q

How many images do we sense with their eyes? How many images do we perceive?

A

2; 1

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63
Q

What major binocular cue shapes our perception of depth based on muscular feedback involved with eye rotation?

A

Convergence

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64
Q

To learn whether depth perception in infants is innate or learned, what object did researchers develop?

A

Visual cliff

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65
Q

What is the visual cliff?

A

A structure with the shallow end covered in a certain pattern connected it to the deep end of the same pattern with Plexiglas on top

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66
Q

Because in the Visual cliff experiment, infants of all ages would not go over the deep end, what does this suggest about the development of the depth perception?

A

Infants develop the depth perception as soon as they begin to crawl

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67
Q

The perception of…… Is based on visual, vestibular, and proprioceptive inputs to characterise the whether and object is moving.

A

Motion

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68
Q

What does motion parallax explain?

A

It explains why we perceive fast moving objects to be closer than slow moving objects

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69
Q

What is the apparent motion caused by the rapid succession of stationery stimuli? (Movies)

A

Phi phenomenon

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70
Q

What is The tendency to recognise familiar objects as having the same properties despite the changes and lighting, distance, or angle of perspective?

A

Perceptual constancy

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71
Q

What are the three main categories of perceptual constancy?

A

Colour constancy, size constancy, and shape constancy

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72
Q

What does colour constancy allow us to do?

A

Allows us to recognise and perceive the colour of an object as remaining relatively unchanged under different viewing or illumination conditions

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73
Q

What does size constancy allow us to do?

A

Allows us to perceive in objects true size despite appearing to be larger or smaller, depending on changes in proximity

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74
Q

What does shape constancy allow us to do?

A

Perceive an object is true shape despite being distorted by differences in our viewing angle

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75
Q

Perception is largely organised by………… And begins by distinguishing an object, or figure, from its surroundings, or ground.

A

Full stop

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76
Q

What is it called when the figure and ground have been identified, sensory information is further organised into groups

A

Figure ground relationship

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77
Q

What are the rules for grouping?

A

Gestalt principles

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78
Q

What are the four gestalt principles?

A

Similarity, proximity, continuity, and closure

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79
Q

What gestalt principle is similarity?

A

Our tendency to perceive similar stimuli to be part of the same object, and to group them accordingly

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80
Q

What gestalt principle is proximately?

A

The tendency to perceive stimuli that are close to one another to be part of the same object, and to group them accordingly

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81
Q

What is the gestalt principle of continuity?

A

Refers to our affinity for spotting patterns and our ability to differentiate between overlapping stimuli

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82
Q

What is the gestalt principle of closure?

A

Address is the minds inclination to recognise complete figures and fill in gaps, even if a picture is incomplete

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83
Q

What is the most thoroughly studied and heavily relied upon human sense?

A

Vision

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84
Q

What is the sensory organ responsible for vision?

A

The eye

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85
Q

For any sensation to occur, there must always be what to universal criteria?

A

1) A stimulus

2) A specialised receptor to receive the stimulus and convert it into neural impulse

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86
Q

In the case of vision, what is the stimulus?

A

Electromagnetic energy

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87
Q

What portion of the electromagnetic spectrum is the human eye capable of interpreting?

A

Visible light

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88
Q

What two physical characteristics of light play a role in vision?

A

Wavelength and intensity

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89
Q

What is the wavelength of visible light?

A

The distance between adjacent crests of EM radiation

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90
Q

What physical characteristic of light determines the colour we perceive?

A

Wavelength

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91
Q

What is the lights intensity?

A

The energy it contains

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92
Q

What is the term for intensity on the EM spectrum?

A

Amplitude

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93
Q

What does intensity determined in vision?

A

The brightness of the colour we perceive

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94
Q

What is the order from longest wavelength to shortest wavelength of the EM spectrum?

A

radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible (colours ROYGBIV), ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma-rays.

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95
Q

What is the wavelength in nanometres on the visible light spectrum of the colour red?

A

700 to 630 nm

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96
Q

What is the wavelength in nanometres on the visible light spectrum of the colour orange ?

A

630 to 590 nm

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97
Q

What is the wavelength in nanometres on the visible light spectrum of the colour yellow?

A

590 to 560 nm

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98
Q

What is the wavelength in nanometres on the visible light spectrum of the colour green?

A

560 to 480 nm

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99
Q

What is the wavelength in nanometres on the visible light spectrum of the colour blue?

A

480 to 440 nm

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100
Q

What is the wavelength in nanometres on the visible light spectrum of the colour violet?

A

440 to 400 nm

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101
Q

Where does light into the eye through?

A

The cornea

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102
Q

What is a transparent and protective membrane that functions as an outer lens, bending light to provide roughly 70% of the eyes total focusing power?

A

Cornea

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103
Q

Why does the cornea not have blood vessels? How does it get its nutrients?

A

It is clear; it’s nutrients are acquired instead from the diffusion of tear fluid

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104
Q

Once light enters the cornea, where does it travel to?

A

The pupil

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105
Q

What is an opening of adjustable diameter that is regulated by surrounding contractile tissues?

A

Pupil

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106
Q

What are the surrounding contractile tissues of the pupil?

A

Iris

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107
Q

That Iris muscle contracts or dilates to maintain a balance between what two things depending on changes in illumination ?

A

Visual acuity and visual sensitivity

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108
Q

What is visual acuity?

A

The ability to see sharply

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109
Q

What is visual sensitivity?

A

The ability to see under dimly lit conditions

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110
Q

What is immediately behind the pupil?

A

The lens

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111
Q

What does the lens do?

A

Focuses incoming light onto the retina

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112
Q

What is the Multi layered, light sensitive tissue that lines the inner surface of the eye?

A

Retina

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113
Q

Similar to a biconvex lens, the eyes lens focuses an image onto the render that is _____, _____, and _____ compared to the viewed object

A

Smaller, inverted, and right left reversed

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114
Q

What acts as the suspensory ligament holding the lens in place to apply adjustable increments attention necessary for focus?

A

Ciliary muscles

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115
Q

When we focus on distant objects, the ciliary muscles _____, causing the suspensory ligament is to become _____, which in turn ______ the lens, effectively _______ its focal distance.

A

Relax, taut, flattens, increasing

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116
Q

When we focus on close up objects, the ciliary muscles _____, causing the suspensory ligaments to _____. As tension _______, the lens becomes more spherical and gains increased ability to _____ light.

A

Contract, relax, decrease, refract

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117
Q

What is the prices of lens curvature adjustment necessary for focus called?

A

Accommodation

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118
Q

What are five other important structures that do not alter lights path to the retina, but act as an essential part to maintain the eye?

A

Sclera, aqueous humor, vitreous humor, choroid, and extraocular muscles

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119
Q

What is the visible, white portion of the eye called?

A

Sclera

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120
Q

What is a fibrous, protective layer that covers the eye and provides rigidity?

A

Sclera

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121
Q

What structure of the eye is located in the anterior chamber?

A

Aqueous humor

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122
Q

What is the anterior chamber of the eye?

A

The space between the cornea and lens

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123
Q

What is the gelatinous fluid that maintains the intraocular pressure of the eye, supplies nutrients, and removes debris?

A

Aqueous humor

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124
Q

In what chamber is the vitreous humor found?

A

Vitreous chamber

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125
Q

What is the gelatinous fluid found behind the lens, in the vitreous chamber?

A

Vitreous humor

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126
Q

What is the structure of the eye that maintains the eyes shape while also firmly keeping the retina in place?

A

Vitreous humor

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127
Q

What does the vitreous humor press the retina against?

A

The choroid

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128
Q

What is a layer of connective-tissue and blood vessels that nourish the posterior structures of the eye?

A

Choroid

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129
Q

What structures control gross eye movement and eyelid elevation?

A

Extraocular muscles

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130
Q

What is the conversion of light stimuli into neural impulses?

A

Phototransduction

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131
Q

Where does photo-transduction occur?

A

The photoreceptor cells of the retina

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132
Q

Before a light reaches the phone receptor cells it must travel through for other types of neurons that form ________ ______.

A

Retinal layers

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133
Q

Progressing from the inner, vitreous humour side of the right now to the outer, choroid side, what are the five types of neural cells that line the retinal layers?

A

1) retinal ganglion cells
2) amacrine cells
3) bipolar cells
4) horizontal cells
5) photoreceptor cells

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134
Q

What two types of photoreceptor cells synapse across the other neurons to communicate laterally and coordinate sensory input?

A

Amacrine cells and horizontal cells

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135
Q

When light activates _______ cells, a biochemical cascade results in decreased _______ release, which affects the activity of ______ cells, which in turn relays this _____ or ____ response to ______ ______ _______. The axons of the ______ ______ ______ exit the retina via the ______ ______ and carry _____ ______ _______ to the ______.

A

Photoreceptor, glutamate, bipolar, excitatory, inhibitory, retinal ganglion cells, retinal ganglion cells, optic nerve, visual sensory information, brain

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136
Q

Light must pass through ____ ____ layers before Activating the _______ to generate a neural message.

A

Four neuronal; photoreceptors

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137
Q

Describe the path of light in the retinal neurons.

A

Light hits the outer of the neurons in the vitreous humor. It then travels through these neural cells to reach the rods/cones and back through with an activated neural message to the optic nerve

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138
Q

Because the axon of each retinal ganglion cell exits through the same point, _____ ______ ______, there is no room for photoreceptors in this region creating a ______ ______.

A

The optic nerve, blind spot

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139
Q

Because the four neuronal layers distort light on their way to the photoreceptors, what is in place to reduce distortion?

A

Fovea

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140
Q

What is the indentation at the centre of the retina that helps to minimise distortion of light called?

A

Fovea

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141
Q

What is the central focal point on the retina? What does this point allow for?

A

Fovea; highest visual acuity

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142
Q

What are the two types of photoreceptor cells?

A

Cones and rods

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143
Q

Which photoreceptor cells are responsible for colour vision?

A

Cones

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144
Q

Which photoreceptor cells are responsible for peripheral vision, contrast and edge perception, and nighttime vision?

A

Rods

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145
Q

Both rods and cones contain what three components?

A

1) dendritic outer segment
2) dendritic inner segment
3) synaptic terminal

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146
Q

The outer segment of the rods and cones contain ______ ______ stacked on top of one another?

A

Photosensitive discs

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147
Q

What did the photosensitive discs stacked on top of one another in rods and cones do?

A

Specialise the cell to receive and transduced light

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148
Q

What is the difference in between the rods and cones in appearance?

A

Size and shape; cones have short, tapering segments that give them their conical shape; rods have a long, cylindrical outer segments that give them their rod shape

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149
Q

Do cones have fewer or more discs than rods? How does this influence their sensitivity to light?

A

Cones have less disks than rods, cones are less sensitive to light than rods

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150
Q

What type of vision is facilitated by cones?

A

Photopic vision

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151
Q

What type of vision occurs under conditions of high illumination and generates coloured perceptions with high acuity?

A

Photopic vision

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152
Q

According to the ______ _______ __ ________ ________, there are three different types of cones

A

Trichromatic theory of colour vision

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153
Q

How did the cones differ in the trichromatic theory of colour vision?

A

Spectral sensitivity; 60% of cones are red wavelengths, 30% of cones are green wavelengths, 10% of cones are blue wavelengths

154
Q

Combinations of the red, blue, and green colours of light can produce……..

A

Any colour within the visible spectrum

155
Q

Under conditions of low illumination ______ do not activate reliably, so ______ facilitate a more sensitive, yet less finely detailed, ______ _______.

A

Cones, rods, scotopic vision

156
Q

What type of vision is facilitated by rods?

A

Scotopic vision

157
Q

Where are cones located in the retina? Where are rods located in the retina?

A 
Cones= centre
Rods= periphery
158
Q

Do cones or rods have a higher sensitivity to colour?

A

Cones have a high sensitivity to colour; rods have a low sensitivity to colour

159
Q

Do cones or rods have a high sensitivity to detail?

A

Cones have a high sensitivity to detail

160
Q

Do cones or rods have a dim light sensitivity?

A

Rods have a high dim light sensitivity

161
Q

How many cells do cones have? How many cells to rods have?

A 
Cones= 6 million cells
Rods= 120 million cells
162
Q

What is the visual system of cones? What is the visual system of rods?

A

Photopic; scotopic

163
Q

Once light reaches the photoreceptor layer, it strikes either a ______ or a ______ to initiate phototransduction

A

Rod or a cone

164
Q

What is the specific biochemical cascade that converts incoming light energy into neural signals? How does this differ for rods and cones?

A

Signal transduction pathway; same for both rods and cones

165
Q

Within the disks of the outer segment, what pigment absorbs incoming light?

A

Rhodopsin

166
Q

What is rhodopsin composed of? What does it do?

A

A pigment composed of opsin and retinal; absorbs incoming light, causing the chromophore for retinal to change from the 11 cis form for the 11 trans form

167
Q

the confirmational change of 11-cis and 11-trans cause the alpha unit of ____ to bind and activate a cyclic GMP-specific _________.

A

Transducin; phosphodiesterase

168
Q

What is a three subunit molecule bound to rhodopsin that binds to activate phosphodiesterase?

A

Transducin

169
Q

Because one activated rhodopsin mobilises about 100 transducins this is considered to be an _____ _____.

A

Amplification step

170
Q

Each retinal ganglion cell has a complex _____ _____

A

Receptive field

171
Q

What is the receptive field of each retinal ganglion cells?

A

The particular area in which a stimulus triggers that neuron to fire

172
Q

The three semicircular canals, along with otolith organs that are the receptive organs of the ________ system

A

Vestibular

173
Q

What is the sensory system responsible for providing one’s awareness of head rotation, gravitation and movement

A

Vestibular system

174
Q

The vestibular system relies on the movement of_________on hair cells to generate neural signals.

A

Endolymph

175
Q

The three _______ ______ specialise in detecting head rotation.

A

Semicircular canals

176
Q

When head British and speed changes, the semicircular canal is move, but the endolymph lags behind due to inertia. What does this cause the sterocilia on hair cells to do?

A

1) deflect toward the kinocilium– resulting in a depolarisation
2) Deflect away from the kinocilium– resulting in hyperpolarisation

177
Q

Why are the three semicircular canals particularly sensitive to a specific type of movement?

A

They are oriented perpendicular to one another

178
Q

Which semicircular canal detects rotation along the transverse plane?

A

Horizontal semicirclular canal

179
Q

Which semicircular canal detects rotation along the coronal plane?

A

Superior semicircular canal

180
Q

Which semicircular canal detects rotation along the sagittal plane?

A

Posterior semicirclular canal

181
Q

Information from each canal is paired with information from its correspondingly oriented canal located in the other ear, what does this allow for in the degrees of stimulation?

A

When the left superior semicircular canal is maximally stimulated, the right superior semicircular canal is maximally inhibited

182
Q

What system between semicircular canal is allows the brain to detect all possible directions of rotation?

A

Push-pull system

183
Q

Where are the otolith organs located?

A

Between the semicircular canals and the cochlea

184
Q

What are the two otolith structures?

A

Utricule and saccule

185
Q

What do the otolith organs specialise in doing?

A

Detecting horizontal and vertical acceleration

186
Q

What is each otolith organ filled with?

A

Gelatinous mixture of endolymph and calcium carbonate crystals

187
Q

What is the gelatinous mixture of endolymph and calcium carbonate crystals called?

A

Otoliths

188
Q

What is the function of otoliths?

A

To increase the inertial mass of the fluid acting on hair cells

189
Q

In what direction are the kinocilium of hair cells oriented on otolith structures?

A

Every direction; The hair cells most band toured the kinocilium reveal the direction of gravitational or linear acceleration

190
Q

What otolith organ is located in the horizontal plane and is sensitive to horizontal movement?

A

Utricle

191
Q

What otolith organ is located in the vertical plane and is sensitive to vertical movement?

A

Saccule

192
Q

What is the primary visual pathway?

A

Retina-geniculate striate pathway

193
Q

Where does the retina geniculate striate pathway conduct its signals through?

A

Lateral geniculate nuclei to primary visual cortex

194
Q

Where is the lateral geniculate nuclei located?

A

Thalamus

195
Q

Where is the primary visual cortex located?

A

Posterior occipital lobe

196
Q

All information acquired from the left visual field reaches the ____ primary visual cortex and all information required from the right visual field reaches the ______ primary visual cortex.

A

Right; left

197
Q

What is the outer portion of the retina called?

A

Temporal hemiretina

198
Q

What does ipsilaterally mean?

A

Along the same side

199
Q

What does the temporal hemiretina do?

A

Receives visual signals from the opposite visual field and sends them ipsilaterally to the primary visual cortex

200
Q

Where does the temporal hemiretina send visual signals?

A

Primary visual cortex

201
Q

What is the inner portion of the retina called?

A

Nasal hemiretina

202
Q

What does the nasal hemiretina do?

A

Receives visual signals from the like sided visual field and sends them contra-laterally to the opposite primary visual cortex

203
Q

Where does the nasal hemiretina send visual signals?

A

Primary visual cortex

204
Q

From what side of the visual field does the temporal hemiretina receive visual signals?

A

Opposite visual field

205
Q

From what side of the visual field does the nasal hemiretina receive visual signals?

A

Like sided visual field

206
Q

Which portion of the retina sends visual signals ipsilaterally?

A

Temporal hemiretina

207
Q

Which portion of the retina sends visual signals contralaterally?

A

Nasal hemiretina

208
Q

Via what structure does the nasal hemiretina send visual signals to the primary visual cortex?

A

Optic chiasm

209
Q

What is considered to be the point of visual decussation?

A

Optic chiasm

210
Q

Information is said to ______ when it crosses from one side of the brain to the other.

A

Decussate (form an X and cross)

211
Q

What are the two subdivisions of the retina geniculate striate pathway?

A

1) parvocellular pathway

2) magnocellular pathway

212
Q

Roughly one million _____ ______ ______ form the optic nerve and travel through the six layers of the ______ ______ _______.

A

Retinal ganglion cells; Lateral geniculate nucleus;

213
Q

What are the four top layers of lateral geniculate nucleus collectively called?

A

Parvocellular pathway

214
Q

What are the two bottom layers of lateral geniculate nucleus collectively called?

A

Magnocellular pathway

215
Q

Parvocellular neurons specialise in what type of resolution of an object?

A

Spatial resolution

216
Q

What LGN pathway primarily receives input from cones and are sensitive to colour, stationary objects, and fine pattern details?

A

Parvocellular pathway

217
Q

Magnocellular neurons specialise in what type of resolution of an object?

A

Temporal resolution

218
Q

What type of LGN pathway receives input from the rods and is particularly sensitive to movement?

A

Magnocellular pathway

219
Q

Together, the parvocellular in magnocellular pathways are essential to ______ _______.

A

Feature detection

220
Q

What is feature detection?

A

The ability to identify the colour, form, depth, and movement of an object

221
Q

The brains ability to process different components of incoming stimuli simultaneously is called _____ ______.

A

Parallel processing

222
Q

What is parallel processing?

A

The brains ability to process different components of incoming stimuli simultaneously

223
Q

What is triggered by either a chemical structure passage through an ion channel or interaction with a G – protein – linked receptor?

A

Gustatory transduction

224
Q

In gustatory transduction, what do ion channels do?

A

Mediate salty and sour tastes

225
Q

In gustatory transduction, what do you G – protein – linked receptors do?

A

Mediate sweet, bitter, and umami tastes

226
Q

What are the simplest gustatory receptors?

A

Salt receptors

227
Q

What are embedded in the salt receptors membrane to allow direct flow of sodium ions into the cell?

A

Ion channels

228
Q

In salt receptors, The influx of sodium ions ______ the cell, which causes ____ _____ _____ ______ to open.

A

Depolarises; voltage gated calcium channels

229
Q

In salt receptors, the influx of sodium ions (from the channels) and calcium ions (from voltage gated calcium channels) an _____ _______.

A

Action potential

230
Q

What three different receptor proteins are necessary for gustatory transduction?

A

1) Simple ion channel that allows hydrogen ions to flow directly into the cell
2) proton gated ion channel that binds hydrogen ions and closes to prevent potassium ions from leaving the cell
3) proton gated ion channel that binds hydrogen ions and opens to allow sodium ions to flow into the cell

231
Q

Sweet receptors do not have ion channels but instead have what in their membranes?

A

G – protein – linked receptors

232
Q

In sweet receptors, natural sugars and related chemicals will bind to the G – protein – linked receptors, which causes a _____ _____ that releases ______.

A

Conformational change; gustducin

233
Q

What cascade do bitter receptors follow?

A

G protein linked receptor cascade

234
Q

Umami receptors primarily respond to what neurotransmitter?

A

Glutamate

235
Q

What receptor path follows the same pathway as bitter receptors?

A

Umami receptor

236
Q

Neural information from each taste receptor is transmitted (ipsilaterally/contra-laterally) via the ____ and _____ nerve.

A

Facial and glossopharyngeal nerve

237
Q

Where do the facial and glossopharyngeal nerve transmit neural information from each receptor to?

A

Solitary nucleus

238
Q

Where is the solitary nucleus located?

A

Medulla

239
Q

What is our sense of smell called?

A

Olfaction

240
Q

What is our sense of taste called?

A

Gustation

241
Q

Food molecules simultaneously stimulate both smell and taste receptors, resulting in an integrated sensation we recognise as ____.

A

Flavour

242
Q

Together, olfaction in gustation are known as?

A

The chemical senses

243
Q

Why are gustation and olfaction known as the chemical senses?

A

Because both systems respond to chemical substances of the external environment

244
Q

What are oderants?

A

Volatile molecules suspended in the air

245
Q

How does olfaction begin?

A

When oderants bind to specific sites on olfactory receptors and initiate transduction

246
Q

Where are olfactory receptors enbedded?

A

Olfactory mucosa

247
Q

What is mucus covered tissue located in the upper portion of the nasal cavity that allows oderants to dissolve and become more readily detected by olfactory receptors dendrites?

A

Olfactory mucosa

248
Q

Where do the axons of the olfactory receptors travel through?

A

Cribiform plate

249
Q

What is unique about the olfactory system of all the senses because of its relay of information?

A

Information about smell is not relayed through the thalamus before reaching the cortex

250
Q

What are the main structures of the limbic system?

A

Hypothalamus, amygdala, and hippocampus

251
Q

Where is the orbitofrontal cortex located?

A

Anterior portion of the frontal lobes

252
Q

When does olfactory transduction occur?

A

Occurs when an oderant binds to specific membrane receptor proteins located on the outside of the olfactory receptor

253
Q

There are hundreds of different smell receptor proteins, each with their own affinity for …………

A

A wide range of oderants

254
Q

What does the accessory olfactory system in most animals detect?

A

Pheromones

255
Q

What are pheromones?

A

Excreted or secreted chemicals capable of triggering social or physiological responses in members of the same species

256
Q

In most animals, pheromones are received and transduced by olfactory receptors in the ______ organ.

A

Vomeronasal

257
Q

Similar to the olfactory system, the gustatory system depends on _______ to detect chemical compounds and convert them into neural signals that the brain can process.

A

Chemoreceptors

258
Q

What is the specific name for taste receptors?

A

Gustatory receptors

259
Q

What are gustatory receptors sensitive to?

A

Chemicals the brain interprets as taste

260
Q

Although gustatory receptors are dispersed throughout the world cavity, there are primarily located on the tongue in clusters of about 50 to 100 called ____ _____.

A

Taste buds

261
Q

Typically, taste buds line small protuberances called _____ that give the tongue its rough, sensored surface

A

Palillae

262
Q

In order to reach the gustatory receptors necessary for sensory transduction, food dissolved by saliva must pass through ______.

A

Taste pores

263
Q

What are minute openings between supporting epithelial cells that cover taste buds?

A

Taste pores

264
Q

Once at the taste buds, chemicals become transduced into ___ ____ that encode taste.

A

Neural messages

265
Q

Our gustatory receptors are sensitive to what five different tastes?

A

Salty, sour, bitter, sweet, umami

266
Q

What are the accessory tastes?

A

Alkaline or fatty

267
Q

Where does the perception of spicy come from?

A

Heat and pain receptors

268
Q

Each tastebuds contains how many types of specialised gustatory receptors?

A

All five

269
Q

Is each taste bud able to detect any taste or are specific areas able to detect specific tastes?

A

Each taste bud is able to detect any taste

270
Q

Together, many photoreceptors the information to a _____ ______ _____ _____ for organisation and transmission to the brain.

A

Single retinal ganglion cell

271
Q

Each retinal ganglion cell has a complex ____ ____

A

Receptive field

272
Q

What is the particular area in which a stimulus triggers that neuron to fire?

A

Receptive field

273
Q

When a photoreceptor is directly connected to a retinal ganglion cell, via a bipolar cell only, it is a part of the _____ of that retinal ganglion cells receptive field.

A

Centre

274
Q

When a photoreceptor is indirectly connected to a retinal ganglion cells, via a horizontal cell via a bipolar cell, it is a part of the _____ of that retinal ganglion cells receptive field.

A

Surround

275
Q

What are the two types of retinal ganglion cells that respond differently to stimulus activation of either the centre or the surround?

A

1) on centre, off surround

2) off centre, on surround

276
Q

What are on-centre, off surround cells?

A

Ganglion cells that preferentially fire more strongly when light strikes the centre of their receptive fields, but not their surrounds.

277
Q

What are off centre, on surround cells?

A

Ganglion cells preferentially fire more strongly when light strikes the surround of their receptive fields, but not their centre

278
Q

The compartmentalised integration of receptive field information allows us to perceive contrast between objects and identify their ____.

A

Edges

279
Q

What is the term for the sense of hearing?

A

Audition

280
Q

What is the sensory organ responsible for audition?

A

Ear

281
Q

What are the specialised receptors for audition?

A

Hair cells

282
Q

Our perception of sound arises from _____ changes generated by ____ ____ _____.

A

Pressure; vibrating air molecules

283
Q

Is the movement of air molecules longitudinal are latitudinal?

A

Longitudinal

284
Q

What are regions where air pressure is compressed under high-pressure called?

A

Compression

285
Q

What are the regions called where air pressure is spread apart under low pressure?

A

Rarefactions

286
Q

Compressions and rarefactions cycle together to form _____ ______.

A

Sound waves

287
Q

What is another term for sound waves?

A

Pressure waves

288
Q

What does amplitude determine in sound?

A

Loudness

289
Q

What is the maximum displacement measured from equilibrium called?

A

Amplitude

290
Q

What does frequency determine in sound?

A

Pitch

291
Q

What is the number of completed cycles per unit time?

A

Frequency

292
Q

What is the intensity (amplitude) of sound measured in?

A

Decibels (dB)

293
Q

The structure of the year is organised into what three sections?

A

Outer, middle, and inner ear

294
Q

Sound waves enter through the _____ ear through the _____

A

Outer; pinna

295
Q

What is the visible, curved piece of cartilage that ‘catches’ sound?

A

Pinna

296
Q

What structure attenuates and reflects soundwaves differently depending on their specific angle of entry, which helps inform the brain of the sounds direction and location?

A

Pinna

297
Q

In what structure after the pinna, do sound waves become amplified?

A

Auditory canal

298
Q

What is another name for the tympanic membrane?

A

Eardrum

299
Q

What are the three ossicles?

A

Malleus, incus, stapes

300
Q

Which ossicle first detects vibrations from the tympanic membrane?

A

Malleus

301
Q

What is the function of the ossicles?

A

Amplify sound vibrations and protect the inner ear from loud, damaging noises

302
Q

What structure of the ear protects it from loud and damaging noises?

A

Ossicles

303
Q

What is the thin membrane from the ear to the inner ear?

A

Oval window

304
Q

Prolonged exposure to loud sound triggers the ___ ____

A

Stapedius muscle

305
Q

When the oval window begins to vibrate, what structure on th other side of the cochlea begins to move in the opposite direction to reduce pressure?

A

Round window

306
Q

The cochlea is a long, snail shaped tube that contains an inner membrane called ………

A

The organ of Corti

307
Q

The organ of corti partitions the cochlea into a longer, narrower tube composed of two membranes called:

A

Basilar and tectorial membrane

308
Q

What type of receptors are hair cells? On what membrane of the organ of Corti are they located?

A

Mechanoreceptors; basilar membrane

309
Q

What do hair cells do?

A

Convert pressure differences into neural signals that are sent to the brain via the auditory nerve

310
Q

Via what nerve are pressure signals in the ear converted into neural signals sent to the brain?

A

Auditory nerve

311
Q

What is the process of converting the mechanical sound vibrations into neural signals, occurring in the hair cells of the inner ear?

A

Auditory transduction

312
Q

Protruding from the basilar membrane, the exposed portion of the hair cell is called?

A

Hair bundle

313
Q

What is a hair bundle composed of?

A

Stereocilia

314
Q

The stereocilia on a hair bundle progressively _____ in length toward one end

A

Increase

315
Q

What is the tallest stereocilia called?

A

Kinocilium

316
Q

What connects the tips of the stereocilia together?

A

Tip links

317
Q

The tip links of stereocilia are also attached to the ……….

A

Gates of potassium channels

318
Q

Auditory transduction occurs when ……..

A

Potassium gates are pulled open

319
Q

What does it mean for information to dessucate?

A

Cross from one side of the brain to the other

320
Q

What is tonotopic organisation of the auditory system?

A

Neurons are spatially arranged according to which frequencies they respond to best

321
Q

The auditory system is organised in this fashion to combine neural signals from each ear and at an early, low level (in the superior olivary complex) while allowing information to be precisely organised before being relayed to the brain. What type of organisation is this?

A

Tonotopic

322
Q

Where does tonotopic organisation begin in the auditory system?

A

Cochlea

323
Q

When classifying the sensations that come from my body, what term are they usually lumped under?

A

Touch

324
Q

Our perception of touch is derived from many sensory modalities, including pressure, stretch, vibration, temperature, pain, and body positioning. Therefore touch is more accurately described as…..

A

Somatosensation

325
Q

What are the five predominant cutaneous receptors?

A

1) Meissner’s corpuscle
2) Merkel disks
3) Free nerve endings
4) Ruffinian corpuscle
5) Pacinian corpuscle

326
Q

What is the general structure of the cutaneous receptor?

A

Dorsal root ganglia and of the spinal-cord and dendrites that are sensitive to specific stimuli

327
Q

What is the main differences between cutaneous receptors?

A

Differences in dendrites

328
Q

What types of cutaneous receptors possess dendrites encapsulated by coverings of connective tissue?

A

Meissner’s corpuscles, Pacinian corpuscles, Merkel’s discs, and Ruffini endings

329
Q

The _____ properties of the cutaneous receptors covered by connective-tissue determine what type of stimulus they respond to and how fast.

A

Mechanical

330
Q

Went to cutaneous receptors are considered fast adapting receptors?

A

Meissner’s corpuscles and Pacinian corpuscles

331
Q

What types of cutaneous receptors are considered slow adapting receptors?

A

Merkel’s discs

Ruffini endings

332
Q

When dropping a pencil in your hand, what receptors fire as the pencil hits your hand, and stop as soon as the pencil stops moving in your hand?

A

Meissner’s corpuscles and Pacinian corpuscles

333
Q

When something is in your hand what cutaneous receptors fire to let you know something is in your hand?

A

Merkel’s disks and Ruffini endings

334
Q

What happens to slow adapting receptors under prolonged exposure to a constant stimulus?

A

Desensitised (adapt)

335
Q

What are cutaneous receptors that are simply exposed dendrites?

A

Free nerve endings

336
Q

What cutaneous receptors are particularly sensitive to temperature and pain?

A

Free nerve endings

337
Q

Meissner’s corpuscles, Merkel’s disks, Ruffini corpuscles and Pacinian corpuscles are all cutaneous receptors identified as?

A

Mechanoreceptors

338
Q

What is something that transducers mechanical stimuli into neural impulses?

A

Mechanoreceptors

339
Q

Meissner’s corpuscles are mechanoreceptors specialised to detect? In what size of receptor field?

A

Pressure; small receptive field

340
Q

Merkel’s disks are mechanoreceptors specialised to detect? In what size of receptor field?

A

Pressure; small receptive field

341
Q

Ruffini’s endings are mechanoreceptors specialised to detect? In what size of receptor field?

A

Stretch ; large receptive field

342
Q

Pacinian corpuscles are mechanoreceptors specialised to detect? In what size of receptor field?

A

Vibration; large receptive field

343
Q

What type of nerve fiber are all encapsulated cutaneous nerve receptors covered with?

A

A beta fibers (AB)

344
Q

What are A beta fibers characterised by?

A

Large diameters and thickly myelinated axons

345
Q

The temperature in pain systems are largely intertwined and rely on ___ ____ ____.

A

Free nerve endings

346
Q

What type of receptor detects pain?

A

Nociceptors

347
Q

What type of receptor detects temperature?

A

Thermoreceptors

348
Q

The transduction a temperature occurs when either heat or cold reaches ____ ___ ____.

A

Transient receptor potential

349
Q

Where are transient receptor potentials located?

A

Membrane of thermoreceptors

350
Q

When the temperature of an object reaches a certain extreme and becomes harmful to touch, we no longer perceive temperature and instead perceive ____.

A

Pain

351
Q

Why do we no longer perceive temperature when the temperature is so extreme and instead perceive pain?

A

Thermoreceptors possess TRPV1 receptors have the dual ability to respond to extreme temperature and to pain.

352
Q

Temperature and pain are carried along what two different nerve fibers?

A

A delta fibers and C fibers

353
Q

What nerve fibers for pain and temperature possess myelinated axons of medium diameter and conduct neural signals at a moderate rate?

A

A delta fibers

354
Q

What nerve fibers for pain and temperature possess unmyelinated axons of a small diameter and conduct nerve signals relatively slowly?

A

C fibers

355
Q

When burning your hand on a hot stove, what type of nerve fibers make you recoil your hand? What type give you the persistent burning sensation afterward?

A

A delta fibers; C fibers

356
Q

What are the two major pathways that carry somatosensory information from both sides of the body to the brain?

A

The dorsal column medial lemniscus system and the anterolateral system

357
Q

What type of somatosensory information does the dorsal column medial lemniscus system carry?

A

Generally carries information regarding pressure, stretch, vibration, and proprioception

358
Q

What information does the anterolateral somatosensory pathway carry?

A

Information regarding temperature and pain

359
Q

What are the three separate nerve tracts of the anterolateral system?

A

1) spinoreticular tract
2) spinotectal tract
3) spinothalamic tract

360
Q

Where does the spinoreticular tract terminate?

A

Reticular formation

361
Q

Where does the spinotectal tract terminate?

A

Tectum of the midbrain

362
Q

Where does the spinothalamic tract terminate?

A

Ventral posterolateral nucleus

363
Q

Where is information from the spinothalamic tract relayed?

A

Somatosensory cortex

364
Q

How is somatosensory information organised?

A

By location

365
Q

What are distinct areas of the skin called?

A

Dermatomes

366
Q

What are innervated by individual peripheral nerve fibers then enter the spinal-cord a different points?

A

Dermatomes

367
Q

What is the locational organisation of the various pathways to the somatosensory cortex called?

A

Somatotopic organisation

368
Q

What type of organisation allows the brain to create a special map of the body represented in the somatosensory cortex?

A

Somatotopic organisation

369
Q

What is the map created by the locational dermatome pathways to the somatosensory cortex?

A

Somatosensory homunculus

370
Q

The somatosensory cortex is proportionally devoted to different body regions based on the _____ of their innervation, not their _____.

A

Density; size

371
Q

What is our sense of the location of our body parts relative to one another called?

A

Proprioception

372
Q

Where are proprioceptors primarily located?

A

Within joints, tendons, and muscles

373
Q

What provides information about muscle stretch, muscle tension, and joint angle to help inform the brain of a body parts position in space?

A

Proprioceptors

374
Q

What type of proprioceptor provides information concerning muscle stretch and length?

A

Muscle spindle

375
Q

What type of proprioceptor provides information about muscle tension? Where is this proprioceptor found?

A

Golgi tendon; tendon

376
Q

Proprioceptors are located (perpendicular/parallel) to muscle fibres and are encapsulated with ____ ______ at either end.

A

Parallel; contractile protein

377
Q

What sense allows us to perceive body motion and coordinate body movements in space and time?

A

Kinesthetic sense

378
Q

What is the difference between proprioception and kinesthetic sense?

A

Proprioception involves information about body position, whereas kinaesthesia provides information about body movement

379
Q

What sense is the major component of muscle memory and hand eye coordination?

A

Kinesthetia

380
Q

Can proprioception be improved with training? Can kinesthetia be improved with training?

A

Proprioception cannot be improved but kinesthetia can be improved with training

381
Q

Is proprioception more of a behavioural trait or a cognitive trait? Is kinesthetia more of a behavioural trait or a cognitive trait?

A

Proprioception is cognitive; kinesthetia is behavioural

Psychology (8 decks)

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