Learning and Memory Flashcards
What is learning?
The prices of quiring new and relatively permanent information or behaviours
What are the three types of learning?
Nonassociative; associative; and observational
What is nonassociative learning?
A change in response to a stimulus due to repeated exposure to that stimulus
What is a stimulus?
Any event or situation that evokes a response
What are the two types of non-associative learning?
Habituation and sensitisation
What is habituation?
A process in which the magnitude of response to a specific stimulus decreases with repeated exposure to the stimulus
What for key properties characterise habituation?
1) frequency of stimulus presentation
2) strength of stimulus
3) dishabituation
4) habituation of dishabituation
What properties of habituation define the magnitude of response?
Frequency and strength
What is dishabituation?
Following habituation, a single presentation of a different stimulus restores the response to the original stimulus
What is habituation of dishabituation?
The more the response to return the response of the original stimulus, the less effect the new stimulus presents
What is sensory adaptation?
A physiological phenomenon that occurs when an animal can no longer detect a repeated stimulus
What is fatigue?
It reveals a progressive decrease in response due to incapacitated muscles
What is sensitisation?
The process in which the magnitude of response to a stimulus increases with repeated exposure to that stimulus
What is the dual process theory of habituation and sensitisation?
It states that both neural processes occur at the same time and the resulting behavioural responses is a net effect of the two processes
What system does habituation stimulate? When is this system activated?
S-R system; is stimulated every time a stimulus elicits a response
What system does sensitisation stimulate? When is this system activated?
State system; only activated with particularly arousing events
What is associative learning?
Learn that one event occurs with another
What are the two types of associative learning?
Classical conditioning and operant conditioning
What is conditioning?
The process in which a particular behaviour becomes dependent upon the presence of a stimulus
What is a stimulus?
Any event or situation that evokes a response
What are three types of stimuli?
Neutral, conditioned, and unconditioned
What is a neutral stimulus?
A stimulus then usually produces no specific response other than focusing attention
What is an unconditioned stimulus?
A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response
What is a conditioned stimulus?
A stimulus that was previously neutral, but after becoming associated with the unconditioned stimulus it eventually elicits a conditioned response
What is an unconditioned response?
A response that is unlearned and occurs naturally with presentation of an unconditioned stimulus
What is a conditioned response?
A learned response to previously neutral but now conditioned stimulus
When does classical conditioning occur?
Occurs when a condition stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimuli us, causing an association to form between the two
Who started classical conditioning?
Ivan Pavlov
What is acquisition?
The initial learning of the stimulus response relationship
In what order are the condition stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus presented in forward conditioning?
The condition stimulus precedes the presentation of the unconditioned stimulus
In what order are the condition stimulus and the unconditioned stimuli us presented in simultaneous conditioning?
The condition stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus are presented and terminated simultaneously
What is another name for higher-order conditioning?
Second order conditioning
What is higher-order conditioning?
And existing condition stimulus is paired with the neutral stimulus creating a second and often weaker condition stimulus
When are the unconditioned stimulus and conditioned stimulus presented in backward conditioning?
The unconditioned stimulus is presented before the condition stimulus
What happens in trace conditioning?
The condition stimulus is presented and then the unconditioned stimulus is presented; there is no overlap
What happens in delay conditioning?
The conditioned stimulus is presented before the unconditioned stimulus and continues throughout the presentation of the unconditioned stimulus
What are the two types of forward conditioning?
Trace conditioning and delay conditioning
What is extinction in relation to classical conditioning?
The diminishing of a conditioned response due to repeated exposure of the conditioned stimulus in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus
What is spontaneous recovery?
The reappearance of a weekend conditioned response after a rest period
When the stimulus generalisation occur?
It occurs when a conditioned response to a specific stimulus transfer to the other stimuli to the conditioned stimulus
What is stimulus discrimination in classical conditioning?
The learned ability to distinguish between a condition stimulus and other stimuli that have not been associated with an unconditioned stimulus
What is operant conditioning?
Learning that occurs by associating in action with the consequence
What is another term for operant conditioning?
Instrumental conditioning
What are two names for behaviour that is a result of operant conditioning?
Instrumental behaviour or goal directed behaviour
What does the Law of Effect contend?
Favourable consequences strengthen behaviour and unfavourable consequences weaken behaviour
What is the procedure by which operant conditioning behaviour is learned?
Shaping
What does shaping look like in operant conditioning?
Reinforcement of successive approximations toward a desired response
What is instinctive behaviour in operant conditioning?
Species specific unlearned behaviour that is often a response to particular environmental stimuli
What is extinction within operant conditioning?
The reduction of an instrumental behaviour when it is no longer reinforced
In operant conditioning what does a discriminative stimulus project?
The presence of reinforcement
In operant conditioning what does a extinction stimulus project?
The absence of reinforcement
What is acquisition in classical conditioning?
The period of time where the condition stimulus comes to elicit the conditioned response
What is extinction in classical conditioning?
Diminishing of a conditioned response through repeated exposure of the conditioned stimulus in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus
What is spontaneous recovery in classical conditioning?
Reappearance of a weekend conditioned response after a rest period
What is generalisation in classical conditioning?
The tendency to respond to other stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus
What is discrimination in classical conditioning?
The learned ability to distinguish between a condition stimulus and other stimuli that have not been associated with an unconditioned stimulus
What is acquisition in operant conditioning?
The period in time where behaviour becomes associated with a consequence
What is extinction in operant conditioning?
Reduction of an instrumental behaviour when it is no longer reinforced
What is spontaneous recovery in operant conditioning?
Reappearance of a goal directed behaviour after a rest period
What is generalisation in operant conditioning?
The tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the reward paired stimuli
What is discrimination in operant conditioning?
The learned ability to distinguish between responses that are reinforced and responses that are not reinforced
What is reinforcement?
Any event that strengthens or increases the behaviour it follows
What are the four types of reinforcement?
Positive, negative, primary, and conditional
What is positive reinforcement?
Reinforcement strengthens a response by presenting a pleasurable event or outcome after the response
What is negative reinforcement?
Reinforcement strengthens our response by removing or reducing an unfavourable event or outcome
How does negative reinforcement differ from punishment?
Negative reinforcement increases a response by ending an aversive event
What is primary reinforcement?
It strengthens our response by presenting in unlearned reinforcing stimulus of innate biological values (food)
What is conditioned reinforcement? What is another term for this?
Secondary reinforcement; it strengthens our response by presenting a learned stimulus that game is reinforcing power to repairing with the primary reinforcer (grades and money)
What are two types of behaviours that describe negative reinforcement?
Escape and avoidance
What is escape in negative reinforcement?
Behavioural response that terminates and unpleasant stimulus that is already present
What is avoidance in negative reinforcement?
Behaviour that prevents an unpleasant stimulus
In operant conditioning what is a reinforcement schedule?
A pattern of the timing and reliability of the presentation
What are the two types of reinforcement schedules?
Continuous and partial (intermittent)
When is the response reinforced with continuous reinforcement?
A response is reinforced every time it occurs
When is the response reinforced with partial reinforcement?
A response is only sometimes reinforced
What are the four schedules of partial reinforcement
Fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, and variable interval
What are fixed ratio schedules?
A set number of responses is required for a reward
Where are variable ratio schedules?
A random number of responses required to earn a reward
What is a fixed interval schedule?
A set amount of time required before a response is rewarded
What is a variable interval schedule?
A very able or random amount of time is required before a response is rewarded
In operant conditioning what is punishment?
Any event that weekends or decreases the behaviour it follows
What are the two types of punishments?
Positive and negative punishments
What is positive punishment?
Weakens a response after presenting an aversive stimulus after the response
What is negative punishment?
It weakens a response by removing a desirable stimulus following the response
What is expectancy in classical conditioning?
A belief that something will happen
What is a surprise in classical conditioning?
A discrepancy between what you expect and what you get
What is the incentive in operant conditioning?
The value of award, or the expectation in anticipation of its pleasure
What do operant conditionists use to control the environment?
Produce deliver actions
What do you behaviourists attribute changes in instrumental behaviour to?
Various consequences
What do cognitive theorists attribute learning to?
The incentive of a reward rather than the reward itself
How do behaviourists and cognitive theorists argue that learning relates to a reward?
Behaviourists argue that the presence of a reward was sufficient for learning
Cognitive theorists believe that a mental representation of the reward might also play a role
What is latent learning?
Learning that is not shown in performance until rewards are given for performance
What is a cognitive map?
A mental representation of an animals environment environment
What is biological predisposition?
The increased chance of developing a pattern of behaviour based on a genetic make up
What is instinctive drift?
The tendency of an animal to revert to instinctive, species typical behaviours that interfere with the conditioned response
What is another name for autoshaping? What does this term mean?
Sign tracking; and instinctive response to certain stimuli that has not been reinforced by reward or punishment
What is observational learning?
Type of learning by watching and imitating others
What is modelling?
The process of observing and learning specific behaviour
Observational learning is a form of what type of learning?
Social learning
What is social learning?
Learning that introduces the influential effects of a model
What is the model in social learning?
Someone of authority whose own behaviour changes the behaviour of another
Who performed the bobo doll experiment? What did this experiment demonstrate?
Albert Bandura; demonstrated that violence and aggressive actions by adults are learned and later performed by children
Who is the father of operant conditioning
B. F. Skinner
What was the BF Skinner’s main experiment?
Skinner Box; A box that contained a lever, speaker, light, a food dispenser, and advice that recorded responses. This design allowed Skinner to observe and animals control over its responses based upon their associated consequences
What main principle of operant conditioning did BF Skinner discover?
Reinforcement
What concept of cognitive factors influence did Albert Bandura introduce?
Cognitive factors influence observational learning through vicarious reinforcement and vicarious punishment
What is mirror neuron?
A type of neurons that fires both when the animal performs a specific behaviour and when an animal observes another performing that specific behaviour
What does the theory of mind refer to?
One’s ability to infer another person’s mental state and explain and predict their behaviour
What is empathy?
The capacity to share or recognise another persons beliefs, desires, and emotions
What disorder is dysfunction of the mirror neuron system play a role in?
Autism
What is autism?
A neurodevelopmental disorder characterised by impaired social interaction
What can the antisocial effects of observational learning do?
Increase undesirable maladaptive behaviours as well as decrease desirable behaviours
What are antisocial effects?
Negative effects
What are prosocial effects?
Positive effects
What can the prosocial effects of observational learning do?
Decrease undesirable and maladaptive behaviours as well as increased desirable behaviours
What are two ways the brain changes in response to experience?
Memory and learning
What is memory?
The persistence of learning overtime through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information
What are the three possible stages the process of memory refers to?
Encoding, storage, and retrieval
What is encoding?
The process of transferring information into usable construct that can be stored within the brain
Which area of the brain sorts sensory information to determine if it eventually becomes a stored memory?
Hippocampus
What is the first step of creating a new memory?
Attention to sensory input which then becomes included with in the various sensory areas of the cortex. These are combined into a single construct in the hippocampus
What types of changes occur in the brain during encoding?
Chemical and electrical changes
What is synaptic plasticity?
The ability of neuronal synapses to strengthen or weaken in response to increases or decreases in their activity
What is the term for sensory information transformed into usable construct become?
Engram
What is the process of creating an engram?
1) sensory information. -> 2) biochemical changes in the brain. -> 3) engram
What are the four types of encoding?
Visual, acoustic, tactile and semantic
What is visual encoding?
Process of transforming visual sensory information
Sensory inputs such as colour, shape, or size that is perceived is temporarily stored within?
The iconic memory
What is acoustic encoding?
The process of transforming auditory sensory information
Auditory input that his words, melodies, and noises or temporarily stored within what?
Echoic memory
What is tactile encoding?
The process of encoding the sense of touch
Sensory inputs such as vibration, texture, and pressure or temporarily encoded within?
Haptic memory
What is semantic encoding?
Encoding of meaningful or contextual sensory information; generally easier to recall because it is been associated with something that already has meaning
What two types of processing describe how well information is encoded?
Shallow processing and deep processing
What is shallow processing?
Encoding on a rudimentary level based on sensory features
What is deep processing?
Something that encode semantically based on meaning and relationships
What are the two ways the process of encoding can happen?
Automatically (without conscious effort) or effortfully (processing that requires attention and conscious awareness for encoding to occur)
What is chunking?
A processing strategy that organises information into familiar, manageable units enabling better retrieval
What is a mnemonic?
A memory aid that translates information into a more retainable form through organisation
What type of mnemonic aids especially in the memorisation of lists by taking the first letter of each word with the list to create a memorable phrase?
Acronyms
What learning strategy aids in memory formation by distributing study or practice over time for a better encoding?
Distributed practice
What is another name for distributed practice?
Spacing effect
In memory, what is storage?
The process of retaining information
What is the earliest stage of memory that record sensory information?
Sensory memory
What are the three types of sensory memory?
Iconic, echoic, haptic
How long is sensory memory stored?
A few seconds
How long does short-term memory last?
Seconds and minutes
Information from sensory memory they get prices into short-term memory is considered our?
Active memory store
What does are active memory store?
It holds the information we are currently thinking about, our conscious thoughts and perceptions at any given moment
What is the capacity of the short-term memory?
7+/-2
Is working memory the same as short-term memory?
No, working memory is the support system for short term memory
What working memory?
The STM’s underline support system that processes, manipulates, and stores current information
Are working memory and short-term memory static or dynamic?
Working memory is dynamic; short-term memory is static
What are the four components of working memory?
1) phonological loop
2) visuospatial sketch pad
3) episodic buffer
4) central executive
What is the phonological loop?
The subsystem of working memory dedicated to the temporary storage of auditory information
What is the visuospatial sketch pad?
The subsystem of working memory dedicated to the temporary storage of visual information
What is the episodic buffer?
The portion of working memory that serves to integrate representations for the phonological loop and the visuospatial sketch pad in an ordered, timely, and coherent sequence
What is the central executive responsible for in working memory?
Controlling and coordinating the activities of the other three memory systems, ensuring that attention and resources are allocated properly
What is rehearsal in memory?
The mental techniques that strengthen the retention of memories
What are the two types of rehearsal?
Maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal
What happens in maintenance rehearsal?
The target piece of information is continuously repeated
Which type of rehearsal results in long-term storage?
Elaborative rehearsal
What type of rehearsal only allows for short-term memory?
Maintenance rehearsal
What happens in elaborative rehearsal?
The meaning of the target piece of information is considered and further associated with previously stored information
What is long-term memory?
LTM store is a relatively limitless amount of information for a relatively indefinite amount of time
What is consolidation in LTM?
The process of stabilising memory
More attention that is given to a memory trace in short-term memory, how will this affect the strength of an engram with long-term memory?
The greater the strength
What is consolidation?
The process of stabilising a memory
What is Long-term potentiation?
The increasing strength of the synapse due to the repeated firing of its neurons
What does long-term potentiation enable?
Learning
With new experiences and information, these neuronal connections grow and expand to create what?
Neural networks– thousands of different connections
What is the process of recalling previously stored information and consolidating it again in order to maintain, strengthen, or modify a memory?
Reconsolidation
What does reconsolidation allow a memory to become? What does this mean?
Labile–ready and open to change
What is retrieval?
The process of accessing stored memories
What is a node in memory?
One single memory
How do you bring back a long term memory into our working memory?
Weaving together many nodes to create a neural network
If one node reaches the threshold level of activation, the node will fire and spread what to other nodes in all directions?
Spreading activation
Multiple sub threshold levels of activation of a node can also cause the node to do what to cause the node to fire?
Summate
What are informative environmental prompts that facilitate memory retrieval?
Retrieval cues
What is context dependent memory?
The idea that external cues can ease one’s ability to remember something
What is the term for internal emotions influencing the facilitation of memory retrieval?
State dependent
What is the tendency to remember the first and last items in the list best?
The serial position effect
When given a list and you are able to most easily remember The first few terms is called
The primary effect
When given a list of the ease of ability to remember the last few terms is considered?
Recency effect
Is it easier to retrieve information from a short term storage or long-term storage?
Short-term storage
What are three types of memory retrieval?
Recall, recognition, and relearning
What is recall?
Remembering information that was previously learned but is currently not physically present
What is recognition?
Identifying information that was previously learned, after being cued
What is the feeling that you know a stimulus, but either cannot place memory or identify last time it was encountered?
Familiarity
What is relearning?
The increased rate of learning information that has previously been learned
What is the failure to remember significant information?
Forgetting
What are the six main ways we forget something?
1) ineffective coding
2) decay theory
3) interference theory
4) cue dependent forgetting
5) motivated forgetting
6) organic causes
What is Information from working/short-term memory they asked to enter a long-term storage?
Ineffective coding
What does the decay theory memory loss to a function of?
Time
What curve did Hermann Ebbinghaus create? What did this curve explain?
Forgetting curve; explain the ability to retain information as a function of time
What theory suggests forgetting occurs due to memory disruptions from both previously learned information and newly presented information?
Interference theory
What are the two forms of interference that can occur?
Proactive and retroactive
What is proactive interference?
Old memories disrupt the retrieval of newer memories
What is retroactive interference?
New memories disrupt the retrieval of older memories
What is another term for cue dependent forgetting?
Context dependent forgetting
What is cue dependent forgetting?
The idea that target information is present in long-term memory, but is currently and temporarily in accessible
What is the tip of the tongue phenomenon?
When someone cannot recall something but feel retrieval is imminent
What is another term for motivated forgetting?
Repression
What is a defence mechanism the mind employs to forget unpleasant memories?
Motivated forgetting or repression
Any deficit in memory due to trauma, no logical disease, and ageing is called?
Amnesia
What are the two types of amnesia ?
Anterograde and retrograde
People suffering from anterograde amnesia have an inability to do what?
Form new long-term memories
What do people suffering from retrograde amnesia have any ability to do?
Retrieve old memories prior to a particular date
Physical trauma causes what type of damage to the brain? Neurological diseases and ageing have what kind of a deteriorating effect ?
Immediate; progressively
Different memory functions can be attributed to what regions of the brain?
Different
Where are the two types of long-term memory?
Explicit memory and implicit memory
What is another word for explicit memory?
Declarative memory
Define explicit memory
Information you know and can tell
What are the two types of explicit memory?
Episodic and semantic memory
What type of memory describes specific events or experiences?
Episodic
What type of memory describes memory for general knowledge and facts?
Semantic memory
What are the two main structures of the brain involved in processing explicit memories?
Frontal lobes and hippocampus
When a person retrieves explicit memories, the brain sends a collection of information where? To be processed by working memory
Frontal lobes
Patients who suffer from large prefrontal cortex lesions have deficits in what type of memory?
Working memory
What structure serves as a temporary holding zone for new explicit memories, giving them just long enough to be moved to long-term storage or forgotten?
Hippocampus
Is the hippocampus a temporary or permanent place of memory storage?
Temporary
If they have a campus is removed what type of amnesia does a person develop?
Anterograde amnesia
What is another term for implicit memory?
Non-declarative memory
What is implicit memory?
Information you know and can show
What type of memory is thought of as memory without awareness and is both unconscious and unintentional?
Implicit memory
What are the three types of implicit memory?
Priming, procedural, and classical conditioning
What is priming in implicit memory?
A persons future behaviour is influenced by previous unconscious preparation
In priming, describe the word stem completion task?
Participants are given a long list of words to read. There are then presented with a three letter words dam and subsequently asked to complete the word. Participants were more likely to complete the word stem with words they had previously read in the list then any other word.
What are three types of implicit memory?
Priming, procedural, and classical conditioning
What is procedural memory?
It allows us to perform daily tasks, especially motor skills, without thought
How does implicit memory influence behaviour in classical conditioning?
Implicit memories influence behaviour based on previously learned associations
What are the two main structures involved in processing implicit memories?
Cerebellum and basal ganglia
What is the cerebellum responsible for?
It is responsible for both the formation of new implicit memories and the storage of implicit memories created by classical conditioning
Patients who suffer from damage to the cerebellum are unable to learn what type of associations?
Conditioned stimulus unconditioned stimulus associations
What is the basal ganglia responsible for in implicit memory?
Responsible for the formation and retrieval of procedural memories
What role does the amygdala play in the formation of memories?
Hormones recruit the amygdala to strengthen emotionally significant memories stored elsewhere; emotionally charged memories are stronger
What is the term for a clear, that account and emotionally significant experience?
Flashbulb memory
What is the term for questions that suggest a particular answer?
Leading questions
What is the term that the idea of that misleading information presented after event can alter one’s memory of the actual event?
Misinformation effect
The system in the brain responsible for sifting through the different features of a memory to Determine its context is?
Source monitoring
What is it false memory?
The remembering of events that never occurred or remembering events quite differently than how they occurred
What is the inability to remember the source of previously learned information?
Source amnesia
What is déjà vu?
A strong sense that the current experience has happened before
Which area of the brain is responsible for encoding and retrieval? How does this processing change with age?
Hippocampus ; physiological changes in the brain is slow memory related processes, further increasing errors
What does the term when memory loss begins to interfere severely with a person’s daily functioning?
Dementia
What occurs in people that are suffering from dementia?
A decline in memory, social abilities, difficulties with communication, and personality changes they make everyday activities a challenge
Is dementia a specific brain disease or a symptom of other diseases?
A symptom of other diseases
What is Alzheimer’s disease?
A major cause of dementia, characterised by general atrophy of the brain
What is the formation of Alzheimer’s disease attributed to?
1) formation of amyloid plaques
2) neurofribrillary tangles
What are amyloid plaques?
Deposit of protein fragments that build up around neurons
What are neurofibrillary tangles?
Fibers of tau protein that build up inside neurons
What does the progression of Alzheimer’s disease correlate with?
Increase development of plaques and tangles with in regions of the brain responsible for memory
How do Alzheimer’s disease symptoms begin? How do these symptoms progress?
Begin as age related memory dysfunction; progresses over time and dementia develops so memory for basic functions (eating, communication) deteriorates
What is Korsakoff syndrome?
A brain disease characterised by thiamine (Vitamin B1) deficiency
What behaviour is Korsakoff’s syndrome often associated with?
Alcohol abuse
What is the limbic system responsible for?
Memory and emotion
What do deficiencies in thiamine cause?
Affect the limbic system (memory and emotion) and cause general neuronal loss throughout the brain.
What are symptoms of Korsakoff’s disease?
Anterograde and retrograde amnesia, confabulation, and apathy
What is confabulation?
Invented memories to compensate for memory gaps
With Korsakoff’s disease, what happens to explicit and implicit memories?
Explicit memory loss occurs well implicit memory loss remains largely intact
