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Cognition and Consciousness Flashcards

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1
Q

How does the cognitive perspective of psychology attempt to understand psychology?

A

How people think

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2
Q

Does the cognitive perspective of psychology oppose or support the idea that an environmental stimulus alone evokes a behavioural response?

A

Opposes

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3
Q

What intervening variable does the cognitive perspective of psychology include in the idea that an environmental stimulus alone evokes a behavioural response? What does this allow for?

A

The intelligence serves as an intermediary step; allows for the brain to interpret sensory information and respond accordingly

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4
Q

What is the information processing model?

A

A conceptual framework to describe how mental processes affect behaviour

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5
Q

What is another name for sensory memory?

A

Sensory register

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6
Q

How long does sensory memory record information?

A

Less than a second

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7
Q

Where does information enter the sensory registry?

A

Sensory organs such as the eyes, ears, nose

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8
Q

Where does processed information that entered the sensory memory go?

A

Working memory

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9
Q

What is attention?

A

The process of concentrating on a select amount of information from a wide range of available information

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10
Q

What are the two types of attention?

A

Selective attention and divided attention

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11
Q

What is selective attention?

A

A choice is made to concentrate on a particular stimulus and to ignore the other

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12
Q

That is the cocktail party effect?

A

When attending a party, there are many conversations occurring, but due to selective attention, you are able to focus on only one conversation

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13
Q

What is searching in selective attention?

A

Scanning the environment for a target stimulus

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14
Q

What are distractors in attention?

A

Irrelevant stimuli that divert attention

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15
Q

What are the four theories regarding how easily a target stimulus can be found?

A

Display size effect, feature integration theory, similarity theory, and guided search theory

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16
Q

What is the display size effect?

A

Refers to the relation between the number of distractors in an array and the time required to locate a target stimulus among them

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17
Q

What is the feature integration theory?

A

States that it is easier to perform a feature search than it is to perform a conjunction search

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18
Q

What is a feature search?

A

A target stimulus is found by scanning for a single, distinct feature among the distractors

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19
Q

What is a conjunction search?

A

The target stimulus is found by scanning for a combination of feature among distractors

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20
Q

What is the similarity theory of search?

A

The more similar the target stimulus is to the distractors stimuli, the more difficult the search will be

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21
Q

What are the two stages of the guided search theory?

A

1) developing a mental representation of the target

2) evaluating all of the activated energies to find the target

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22
Q

What happens in divided attention?

A

Your concentration is split between performing two or more tasks or inputs

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23
Q

What is another term for inattentional blindness?

A

Perceptual blindness

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24
Q

What is inattentional blindness?

A

Refers to the inability to see something in plain sight because of attending to another stimulus

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25
Q

What is change blindness?

A

A person’s inability to detect visual changes in a scene that he or she is directly looking at

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26
Q

What is the Stroop effect?

A

A phenomenon that demonstrates the problem with selective attention. Once a controlled task becomes automated through practice, there are not only benefits but errors associated with increased processing speed

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27
Q

What is attention deficit hyperactivity disorder?

A

A psychological condition characterized by a failure to give close attention to details as well as an inability to sustain attention

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28
Q

What are the three main symptoms of ADHD?

A

Hyperactivity, impulsivity, and inattention

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29
Q

What is another name for spatial neglect?

A

Hemi- neglect

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30
Q

What type of disorder is spatial neglect? What is this disorder characterised by?

A

Attentional dysfunction; characterized by a lack of attention paid to the contralateral aspect of the brain

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31
Q

Any information that we accumulate is organised in our minds as a?

A

Concept

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32
Q

What is a concept in our minds?

A

A mental representation through which we understand the world

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33
Q

What is a category in the mind?

A

Multiple concepts that have similar characteristics are grouped together in the mind

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34
Q

What are the two types of categories?

A

Natural and artifact categories

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35
Q

What are natural categories?

A

Groupings that occur in the natural world and have predictable properties

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36
Q

What are artifact categories?

A

Human made groupings with ambiguous, imprecise boundaries

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37
Q

What is an example of a natural category?

A

Trees, clouds

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38
Q

What is an example of an artifact boundary?

A

Furniture, clothes

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39
Q

How are categories labelled? Example?

A

Not too general, not too specific; apples for a red/green/yellow fruit on a tree but not Gala apples or too vague like fruit

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40
Q

What are the four main theories regarding how a concept becomes a part of a category?

A

Feature based theory, prototype theory, exemplar based theory, and theory based view of meaning

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41
Q

What is the feature based theory?

A

Concepts are placed into categories based on their defining features

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42
Q

How are concepts grouped in the prototype theory?

A

Concepts are grouped together by their degree of similarity to a prototype

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43
Q

What is the ideal or average model based on what we have previously encountered?

A

Prototype

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44
Q

A concept is considered to be part of the prototype theory if it is part of a category based on its?

A

Graded membership

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45
Q

What is a graded membership in the prototype theory?

A

An object is a better member if it is more similar to the prototype

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46
Q

How does the exemplar based learning theory group concepts together?

A

Concepts are grouped together based on their degree of similarity to an exemplar

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47
Q

What is an exemplar?

A

A specific remembered instance that is most typically thought of when a category is mentioned

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48
Q

How does the theory based view of meaning place concepts into categories?

A

Based on a general idea constructed from an experience

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49
Q

Does the theory based view of meaning construct categories based on resemblance?

A

No

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50
Q

How is knowledge in the form of concepts and categories organised within the mind?

A

Schema

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51
Q

What is a broad pattern of what is normal in a given situation?

A

Schema

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52
Q

What is a general depiction of everything that is supposed to happen in a given situation and how to react?

A

Schema

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53
Q

What is a fixed generalised belief about a particular concept?

A

Stereotypes

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54
Q

What is an example of a schema that contains the order in which things should occur?

A

Script

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55
Q

What is the series of events that eventually lead to the solution?

A

Problem solving cycle

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56
Q

What are the seven steps of the problem solving cycle?

A

1) Identify problem
2) define problem
3) form strategy
4) organise information
5) allocate resources
6) monitor progress
7) evaluate results

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57
Q

What are the two types of problems?

A

Well structured problems and ill structured problems

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58
Q

What are well structured problems?

A

Have a specified goal and a path to the solution

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59
Q

What is another name for a well structured problem?

A

Well defined problems

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60
Q

What is another name for an ill structured problem?

A

Ill defined problems

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61
Q

What is an ill structured problem?

A

Problems that do not have a clear path to solution

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62
Q

In what ways can ill structured problems be solved?

A

Represented in numerous ways and have various alternative solutions

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63
Q

Every problem has what?

A

A problem space?

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64
Q

What is a problem space?

A

A set of all possible states that can be reached to obtain a solution

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65
Q

What are examples of paths to problem solving?

A

Algorithms, heuristics, analogy, trial and error, and insight

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66
Q

What is an algorithm?

A

A series of steps that always produce the right answer

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67
Q

What are heuristics?

A

Mental shortcuts that do not guarantee a correct answer, but effectively narrow down the problem space to simplify the problem in order to speed up the process

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68
Q

What are two types of heuristics?

A

Hill climbing strategy and means end analysis

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69
Q

What is the hill climb strategy of heuristics?

A

Choose the option that leads directly towards the goal

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70
Q

What is the drawback of the algorithm problem solving strategy?

A

Often time and resource consuming

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71
Q

What is the drawback of the hill climbing heuristics strategy ?

A

Sometimes you need to go backwards to get forward

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72
Q

What is the means end strategy of heuristics?

A

Compare the current state to the goal state and then try to decrease this distance by available means

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73
Q

How are problems approached in the means end analysis?

A

The large problem is broken down or simplified into smaller sub problems each with its individual goals to be solved

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74
Q

What happens in the analogy approach to problem solving?

A

A current problem is compared to an already solved problem and the solution is translated

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75
Q

What is a trial and error problem solving strategy?

A

A problem solving strategy in which all possible solitons are tried until one works

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76
Q

When applied strategies fail, what strategy may succeed?

A

Insight

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77
Q

What is insight?

A

A sudden novel solution to a problem

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78
Q

What is another term for insight?

A

The aha moment

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79
Q

What are two other names for a problem solving set?

A

Mental set or Einstellung

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80
Q

What is a problem solving set?

A

The collection of beliefs and assumptions that a person makes about a problem based on previous experiences

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81
Q

What is functional fixedness?

A

Another influence of one’s problem solving set is the tendency to be rigid in how they think about an object’s function

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82
Q

What is confirmation bias?

A

A type of cognitive tendency in which people search for information that confirms their existing beliefs

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83
Q

What is belief perseverance?

A

The tendency to stick with one’s initial beliefs, even in the face of new and contradictory information

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84
Q

What is creativity?

A

The process of producing something innovative and valuable

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85
Q

What roles do assumption making and irrelevant information in problem solving?

A

Barriers

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86
Q

What two types of thinking is associated with his or her creativity?

A

Convergent thinking and divergent thinking

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87
Q

What is convergent thinking?

A

Narrows down the possibilities to find one answer

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88
Q

What is divergent thinking?

A

Attempts to generate a variety of ideas to a problem

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89
Q

What are Wallas’ four stages of creativity?

A

1) preparation
2) incubation
3) illumination
4) verification

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90
Q

What is the preparation stage of Wallas’ stages of creativity?

A

Information is gathered about the problem

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91
Q

What is the incubation stage of Wallas’ stages of creativity?

A

The problem is momentarily set aside and processed unconsciously

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92
Q

What is the illumination stage of Wallas’ stages of creativity?

A

A key insight into solving the problem is suddenly realised

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93
Q

What is the verification stage of Wallas’ stages of creativity?

A

The creative thinker confirms the new idea does lead to the problems solution

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94
Q

What perspective does the most basic model use to describe the process of decision making?

A

Economic perspective

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95
Q

From the economic perspective of cognitive processes, what is subjective utility?

A

Refers to an individuals judged value of it

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96
Q

From the economic perspective of cognitive processes, what is subjective probability?

A

An individual’s estimated likelihood of the events occurance

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97
Q

What is the equation to find the expected value of a choice?

A

Expected value =

Subjective utility) (subjective probability

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98
Q

What are heuristics?

A

Mental strategies that sacrifice 100% guarantee of accuracy in exchange for efficiency

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99
Q

What are the two types of heuristics?

A

Availability heuristic and representative heuristics

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100
Q

What is an availability heuristic?

A

A judgment is made based on the perceived frequency or likelihood of an event

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101
Q

What is a conjunction fallacy?

A

The mistaken belief that a smaller specific subset of a category is more probable than a larger, more general set

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102
Q

What is a representative heuristics?

A

Ones judgment is based on its similarity to the prototype of the population and its perceived randomness

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103
Q

What is the base rate in representative heuristics?

A

The prevalence of an event

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104
Q

What is gambler’s fallacy in representative heuristics?

A

Gamblers believe their previous wins/losses will influence their percentage chance of winning in subsequent rounds when in fact their percentage chance of winning does not change with each round

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105
Q

What term describes a tendency to think and perceive something in a particular way?

A

Cognitive biases

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106
Q

What are the three most common types of biases?

A

Illusory correlation, overconfidence, and hindsight bias

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107
Q

What is an illusory correlation?

A

Phenomenon by which people perceive a relationship between two unrelated variables

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108
Q

What is over confidence?

A

A bias in which a person’s evaluation of his or her own judgments is greater than the actual accuracy of those judgements

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109
Q

What is another term for hindsight bias?

A

Knew it all along effect

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110
Q

What is hindsight bias?

A

The idea that when one evaluates a past event, he or she feels that the results were always predictable and should have been obvious

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111
Q

What is framing?

A

A change in how the problem is presented that affects decision making

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112
Q

What are the two types of reasoning?

A

Deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning

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113
Q

What is deductive reasoning?

A

The process of reasoning from a general statement or premise to reach a logical conclusion about specific examples or instances

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114
Q

What is inductive reasoning?

A

The process of reasoning from specific experiences or observations to form a general conclusion

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115
Q

What type of reasoning is based upon hypothetical, abstract thinking rather than concrete events

A

Deductive reasoning

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116
Q

What type of reasoning is based on supported evidence, the conclusion is probable but not certain

A

Inductive reasoning

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117
Q

What are the three cognitive theories of intelligence?

A

Multiple intelligences, triarchic theory or intelligences, and the three stratum model of intelligence

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118
Q

What is general intelligence? What is its symbol?

A

g; people with a higher intelligence will score higher on verbal reasoning or a spatial mathematical task

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119
Q

What is the theory of multiple intelligences?

A

Intelligence is a collection of many abilities rather than just one

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120
Q

What is it called when a person is exceptionally skilled in one of the areas of intelligence but cannot function in another?

A

Savant syndrome

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121
Q

What are the eight types of intelligences?

A

Linguistic, logical mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily kinesthetic, interpersonal, interpersonal, and naturalist

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122
Q

What is the triarchic theory of intelligence? What are these components?

A

Proposes that three intelligences can contribute to cognitive ability; analytical abilities, creative abilities, and practical ability

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123
Q

What is another term for analytical abilities in the triarchic theory of intelligence?

A

Componential

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124
Q

What is another term for creative abilities in the triarchic theory of intelligence?

A

Experiential

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125
Q

What is another term for practical abilities in the triarchic theory of intelligence?

A

Contextual

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126
Q

What are analytical abilities in the triarchic theory of intelligence?

A

Refer to the ability to analyse a problem and to evaluate the possible solutions

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127
Q

What are creative abilities in the triarchic theory of intelligence?

A

The ability to generate novel ideas and to act adaptively in unfamiliar situations

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128
Q

What are contextual abilities in the triarchic theory of intelligence?

A

The ability to fit into a changing environment and perform everyday tasks

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129
Q

What component of the triarchic theory of intelligence is most often referred to as street smarts?

A

Practical abilities

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130
Q

What is the three stratum model of intelligence?

A

Intellectual ability is arranged in a hierarchy consisting of three strata: narrow, broad, general

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131
Q

What is the narrow stratum of the three stratum model of intelligence?

A

Includes specific abilities such as reading comprehension and spelling abilities

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132
Q

What is the broad stratum of the three stratum model of intelligence?

A

Includes Short term memory, retrieval ability and information processing speed

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133
Q

What two types of intelligence are included in the broad stratum of the three stratum model of intelligence?

A

Crystallised intelligence and fluid intelligence

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134
Q

What is crystallised intelligence?

A

Information acquired over a life time through experience

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135
Q

What is fluid intelligence?

A

The ability to apply basic information processing skills

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136
Q

What is included in the general stratum of the three stratum model of intelligence?

A

Contains the g factor

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137
Q

What is the most common measure of intelligence?

A

Intelligence quotient (IQ)

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138
Q

What is the equation to find a person’s IQ?

A

IQ= 100* (mental age)/(chronological age)

139
Q

What is the mental age of a person?

A

The chronological age that most typically corresponds with their level of performance

140
Q

What is the average person’s IQ?

A

Between 85 and 115

141
Q

What are the four stages of Piaget’s stages of cognitive development?

A

1) sensorimotor stage
2) preoperational stage
3) concrete operational stage
4) formal operational stage

142
Q

How long does the sensorimotor stage last?

A

Birth to acquisition of language (about 2 years old)

143
Q

What happens during the sensorimotor stage of development in Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development?

A

Babies attempt to understand the world through exploring it

144
Q

What is the main developmental phenomenon in the sensorimotor stage of development?

A

Object permanence

145
Q

What is object permanence?

A

The awareness that objects continue to exist even when not perceived

146
Q

During what stage of cognitive development does stranger anxiety develop?

A

Sensorimotor stage

147
Q

What is stranger anxiety? When does it occur?

A

When babies become more socialised (8 months) they begin to show fear, anxiety and distress toward unfamiliar faces

148
Q

During what age does the preoperational stage range?

A

Age 2 to 6 or 7 years old

149
Q

What happens during the preoperational stage of development in Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development?

A

Children are not yet able to perform mental operations such as reasoning and begin to think in terms of images

150
Q

During what stage of Piaget’s stages of cognitive development do children begin to show signs of pretend and play and assign roles?

A

Preoperational stage

151
Q

During what stage of Piaget’s stages of cognitive development are children considered egocentric?

A

Preoperational stage

152
Q

What is egocentric?

A

They have difficulty perceiving other’s viewpoints

153
Q

During the preoperational stage of cognitive development, what concept do children have the inability to understand?

A

The concept of conservation

154
Q

What is conservation?

A

The concept that the quantity of a substance remains unchanged despite changes in its shape

155
Q

Near the end of the preoperational stage, what do children begin to develop?

A

Theory of mind

156
Q

What is a theory of mind?

A

An ability to infer another person’s mental state and thus predict their behaviour

157
Q

How long does the concrete operational stage last?

A

From seven years to eleven years old

158
Q

What characterises the concrete operational stage of development in Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development?

A

The ability to think logically about concrete events but the inability to comprehend hypothetical or abstract concepts

159
Q

During what stage of Piaget’s stages of cognitive development does the concept of conservation develop?

A

Concrete operational stage

160
Q

During what stage of Piaget’s stages of cognitive development are children first capable of inductive reasoning?

A

Concrete operational stage

161
Q

During what stage of Piaget’s stages of cognitive development are children capable of inductive reasoning?

A

Concrete operational stage

162
Q

During what stage of Piaget’s stages of cognitive development are children able to fully envision the perspective of another individual?

A

Concrete operational stage

163
Q

When is the formal operational stage?

A

Age 12 to adulthood

164
Q

During what stage of Piaget’s stages of cognitive development are children able to use deductive reasoning?

A

Formal operational stage

165
Q

What happens during the formal operational stage of development in Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development?

A

Children are able to think logically about abstract and hypothetical instances; capable of deductive reasoning

166
Q

What describes the directional changes in cognitive development during adulthood?

A

Multidirectional

167
Q

What cognitive abilities tend to decline with age?

A

Attention and memory

168
Q

A person’s ability to attend to the environment is a basic mental process that facilitates other _____ cognitive processes.

A

Higher order

169
Q

A person’s working memory is a cognitive process that allows for the dynamic manipulation of ____

A

Information that is currently on the mind

170
Q

What happens to fluid intelligence with age?

A

It declines

171
Q

What happens to crystallised intelligence with age?

A

It increases

172
Q

What three factors further influence cognitive development?

A

Culture, heredity and environment

173
Q

What does the cultural perspective of cognitive development recognise?

A

Children grow up within a social context surrounded by symbols, language, and material objects

174
Q

How does the cultural perspective suggest that people develop perception, attention, and memory?

A

Infants are born with rudimentary mental processes (perception, attention, and memory) however through culture, these develop into higher order processes

175
Q

How does the cultural perspective of cognitive development suggest we develop mental processes differently?

A

Based on our differences in culture we have different developments of mental processes

176
Q

What are the effects of heredity on cognitive development?

A

The differences in thinking associated with a person’s genetic makeup

177
Q

Does heredity or environment play a larger role in cognitive development?

A

Heredity but environment is very important too and accounts for factors such as economic status and learning opportunities

178
Q

How a person perceives, thinks, evaluates, and plans is believed to originate in structures of the?

A

Brain

179
Q

Describe the structure of the cerebral cortex. What does the cerebral cortex play a role in?

A

A thin layer or tissue that covers both hemispheres of the brain and has numerous folds to increase surface area. Plays a large role in cognition

180
Q

The larger the cerebral cortex the _____ functioning cognition

A

Better

181
Q

What disease is characterized by a loss of neurons and general atrophy leading to a cognitive deficit?

A

Alzheimer’s

182
Q

What is a vascular accident marked by stoppage of blood flow to part of the brain

A

A stroke

183
Q

What is another term for neoplasms?

A

Brain tumours

184
Q

What are growths located in certain areas of the brain that can cause severe cognitive dysfunction?

A

Brain tumours

185
Q

What neurological deficits can strokes cause?

A

Can cause severe cognitive dysfunction leading to problems with memory and attention; changes in perception of vision and hearing

186
Q

If a patient experiences damage to the prefrontal cortex, what types processes can be impaired?

A

Judgement, decision making, and working memory

187
Q

What does language play a role in?

A

Perception, memory, and learning

188
Q

What are the three theories of language development?

A

Learning perspective, nativist perspective, and interactionist perspective

189
Q

Who created the learning perspective of language development?

A

BF Skinner

190
Q

What does the learning perspective of language development suggest?

A

Children develop the use of language through associative conditioning (classical and operant) and observational learning

191
Q

How do children initially learn to speak in the learning perspective of language development?

A

Parents reinforce the babbling of nonsense syllables when they mimic a real word (i.e. Mom coming when a sound resembles mom)

192
Q

How do individuals learn syntax by the learning perspective of language?

A

Observational learning

193
Q

What does the nativist perspective of language development suggest?

A

Language is an innate skill for which people are predisposed

194
Q

What device of the brain did the nativist perspective propose?

A

Language acquisition device (LAD)

195
Q

What is a language acquisition device?

A

An area of the brain with a set of innate transformational grammatical rules

196
Q

What does the interactionist perspective of language development suggest?

A

Language is acquired for social interaction and that children acquire new understandings based on what they want to communicate

197
Q

What area did the interactionist perspective propose?

A

Zone of proximal development (ZPD)

198
Q

What is the zone of proximal development?

A

An area of optimal learning in which a child develops language skills through child-adult interaction

199
Q

In the interactionist perspective of language development, what is scaffolding?

A

The use of superior language by a parent which challenges the child to achieve complex language more quickly

200
Q

What is linguistic relativity?

A

The idea that speakers of different languages utilise different cognitive processes that influence how they think

201
Q

What is another term for linguistic relativity?

A

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

202
Q

What is linguistic determinism?

A

The idea that language entirely determines how we think

203
Q

What is another term for linguistic determinism

A

Strong Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

204
Q

What is the difference between linguistic relativity and linguist determinism?

A

Relativity–different language speakers use different parts of their brain which influences how they think
Determinism–language entirely determines how we think

205
Q

What are the two areas of the brain that are strongly associated with language production and comprehension?

A

Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area

206
Q

Where is the part of the brain responsible for speech production? What is this area called?

A

Left frontal lobe, Broca’s area

207
Q

What does damage to the Broca’s area region result in? What is still functional?

A

Loss of the ability to speak words, still able to comprehend words

208
Q

What is aphasia?

A

A language disorder associated with brain injury

209
Q

What is Wernicke’s area responsible for?

A

Language comprehension

210
Q

Where is Wernicke’s area located?

A

Left temporal lobe

211
Q

Are Broca’s and Wernicke’s area structures or areas?

A

Areas

212
Q

What is consciousness?

A

The awareness we have of our environment and the mental processes

213
Q

Is consciousness linear or static?

A

Neither, it is always shifting and continuous

214
Q

Naturally occurring consciousness ranges from _____ to _____ and includes ____ and ____.

A

Alertness, sleep, daydreaming, and drowsiness

215
Q

How are the states of consciousness characterized?

A

Brain waves

216
Q

What are brain waves? What are they recorded by?

A

Neural oscillations recorded by an electroencephalograph

217
Q

What are the four brain wave types characteristic of the distinctive states of consciousness

A

Beta waves, alpha waves, theta waves, and delta waves

218
Q

What wave type demonstrates alertness?

A

Beta waves

219
Q

What is alertness as a state of consciousness?

A

State of consciousness characterized by being awake; and fully aware of their environment and thoughts

220
Q

What is the frequency of beta waves?

A

13 Hz and 30 Hz

221
Q

What is daydreaming as a state of consciousness?

A

A state of consciousness in which one is awake but not fully alert

222
Q

What brain waves characterize daydreaming?

A

Alpha waves

223
Q

What is the frequency of alpha waves?

A

8 Hz and 13 Hz

224
Q

What is drowsiness as a state of consciousness?

A

A state of consciousness associated with even less awareness than daydreaming

225
Q

When is drowsiness experiences?

A

is often experienced either just before falling asleep or just after waking up

226
Q

What waves are associated with drowsiness?

A

Theta waves

227
Q

What is the frequency of theta waves?

A

Between 3 and 8 Hz

228
Q

What is sleep as a state of consciousness?

A

Inhibition of most voluntary muscles and sensory activity

229
Q

What is the difference between sleep and a coma?

A

Sleep does not fully close one’s sensory and perceptual windows like a coma does

230
Q

What type of waves characterize sleep?

A

Delta waves

231
Q

What is the wave frequency of delta waves?

A

1 to 3 Hz

232
Q

What are the five distinct stages of sleep?

A

Stage 1, stage 2, stage 3, stage 4 and REM sleep

233
Q

How a person perceives, thinks, evaluates, and plans is believed to originate in structures of the?

A

Brain

234
Q

Describe the structure of the cerebral cortex. What does the cerebral cortex play a role in?

A

A thin layer or tissue that covers both hemispheres of the brain and has numerous folds to increase surface area. Plays a large role in cognition

235
Q

The larger the cerebral cortex the _____ functioning cognition

A

Better

236
Q

What disease is characterized by a loss of neurons and general atrophy leading to a cognitive deficit?

A

Alzheimer’s

237
Q

What is a vascular accident marked by stoppage of blood flow to part of the brain

A

A stroke

238
Q

What is another term for neoplasms?

A

Brain tumours

239
Q

What are growths located in certain areas of the brain that can cause severe cognitive dysfunction?

A

Brain tumours

240
Q

What neurological deficits can strokes cause?

A

Can cause severe cognitive dysfunction leading to problems with memory and attention; changes in perception of vision and hearing

241
Q

If a patient experiences damage to the prefrontal cortex, what types processes can be impaired?

A

Judgement, decision making, and working memory

242
Q

What does language play a role in?

A

Perception, memory, and learning

243
Q

What are the three theories of language development?

A

Learning perspective, nativist perspective, and interactionist perspective

244
Q

Who created the learning perspective of language development?

A

BF Skinner

245
Q

What does the learning perspective of language development suggest?

A

Children develop the use of language through associative conditioning (classical and operant) and observational learning

246
Q

How do children initially learn to speak in the learning perspective of language development?

A

Parents reinforce the babbling of nonsense syllables when they mimic a real word (i.e. Mom coming when a sound resembles mom)

247
Q

How do individuals learn syntax by the learning perspective of language?

A

Observational learning

248
Q

What does the nativist perspective of language development suggest?

A

Language is an innate skill for which people are predisposed

249
Q

What device of the brain did the nativist perspective propose?

A

Language acquisition device (LAD)

250
Q

What is a language acquisition device?

A

An area of the brain with a set of innate transformational grammatical rules

251
Q

What does the interactionist perspective of language development suggest?

A

Language is acquired for social interaction and that children acquire new understandings based on what they want to communicate

252
Q

What area did the interactionist perspective propose?

A

Zone of proximal development (ZPD)

253
Q

What is the zone of proximal development?

A

An area of optimal learning in which a child develops language skills through child-adult interaction

254
Q

In the interactionist perspective of language development, what is scaffolding?

A

The use of superior language by a parent which challenges the child to achieve complex language more quickly

255
Q

What is linguistic relativity?

A

The idea that speakers of different languages utilise different cognitive processes that influence how they think

256
Q

What is another term for linguistic relativity?

A

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

257
Q

What is linguistic determinism?

A

The idea that language entirely determines how we think

258
Q

What is another term for linguistic determinism

A

Strong Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

259
Q

What is the difference between linguistic relativity and linguist determinism?

A

Relativity–different language speakers use different parts of their brain which influences how they think
Determinism–language entirely determines how we think

260
Q

What are the two areas of the brain that are strongly associated with language production and comprehension?

A

Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area

261
Q

Where is the part of the brain responsible for speech production? What is this area called?

A

Left frontal lobe, Broca’s area

262
Q

What does damage to the Broca’s area region result in? What is still functional?

A

Loss of the ability to speak words, still able to comprehend words

263
Q

When a person initially closes their eyes to sleep, what waves are recorded?

A

Alpha waves (daydreaming) and the person becomes more relaxed

264
Q

How long does stage 1 of the sleep cycle last?

A

20 minutes

265
Q

What wave type characterizes stage 1?

A

Decreases alpha waves and increases theta waves

266
Q

What are people most easily wakened by in stage 1 of the sleep cycle?

A

Hypnic jerks

267
Q

What are hypnic jerks?

A

Involuntary muscle twitches associated with a sense of falling

268
Q

What happens to the body in stage 2 of the sleep cycle?

A

Body temperature decreases and breathing and heart rate slow

269
Q

What type of brain waves characterize stage 2 of the sleep cycle?

A

Theta waves

270
Q

What two types of theta waves characterize step 2 of the sleep cycle?

A

K complexes and sleep spindles

271
Q

What are k complexes?

A

Single, large amplitude, high voltage waves that are believed to suppress cortical arousal and aid sleep based memory consolidation

272
Q

What are sleep spindles?

A

Short bursts of 12 to 24 Hz waves that also suppress cortical arousal

273
Q

What happens to the brain waves in stage three of the sleep cycle?

A

Decreased theta waves and increased delta waves

274
Q

What is the stage of sleep that is deepest for humans?

A

Stage 4

275
Q

What wave type comprises stage 4 of the sleep cycle?

A

Delta waves

276
Q

As one progresses from stage 1 to stage 4 what happens to brain frequency, amplitude, and voltage?

A

Decrease in frequency; increase in amplitude; increased in brain wave voltage

277
Q

After the sleeper reaches stage 4 of the sleep cycle, what stages follow?

A

Stages retreat in reverse order back to but not including stage 1

278
Q

What sleep stage does the sleeper reach when they return from stage 1->4->2?

A

R.E.M.

279
Q

What is rapid eye movement sleep? (R.E.M.)

A

Stage of sleep characterized by low amplitude mixed frequency brain waves similar to those of an alert actively thinking person

280
Q

What is another term for R.E.M. sleep?

A

Paradoxical sleep

281
Q

How long does a single sleep cycle last?

A

90-100 min

282
Q

What is the pattern of a single sleep cycle?

A

1➡️2➡️3➡️4➡️3➡️2➡️1➡️R.E.M.

283
Q

What is the pattern for two sleep cycles?

A

1➡️2➡️3➡️4➡️3➡️2➡️R.E.M. ➡️2➡️3➡️4➡️3➡️2➡️R.E.M.

284
Q

How many sleep cycles does the average adult experience?

A

Four cycles throughout the night

285
Q

As the night progresses, what happens to the length of R.E.M. stage? What about the length of the nREM stage?

A

R.E.M. Stage gets longer nREM gets shorter than (especially stage 4)

286
Q

What are the nREM stages?

A

Stages 1-4

287
Q

When does most dreaming occur?

A

During the R.E.M. stage of sleep

288
Q

What region of the brain are dreams associated with?

A

Prefrontal cortex

289
Q

What happens in the prefrontal cortex?

A

The brain centre where logical thinking and planning take place

290
Q

Since dreams are associated with decreased activity in the prefrontal cortex, what traits are associated with dreaming?

A

Emotionally charged, strange, unorganised, and difficult to remember

291
Q

What does Sigmund Freud believe about dreams?

A

Dreams are the window to our unconscious thoughts and feelings

292
Q

What do evolutionary psychologists believe the function of dreams is?

A

Dreams help us approach problem solving through a different state of consciousness

293
Q

What is the physiological function theory of dreaming?

A

Dreams and R.E.M. sleep provide regular brain stimulation, which helps preserve and develop neural pathways

294
Q

What is the information processing theory of dreaming?

A

Dreams organise the day’s events and consolidate memories

295
Q

What is the neural activation theory of dreaming?

A

R.E.M. Sleep activates neural pathways that contain random visual memories, which the brain connects into the form of dreams

296
Q

Is R.E.M. sleep is physiologically necessary?

A

Yes

297
Q

When subjects were deprived of R.E.M. Sleep, and then allowed to sleep, what did they experience?

A

R.E.M. Rebound

298
Q

Is R.E.M. Sleep regulated together with or separately from the other stages of sleep?

A

Separately

299
Q

What are the three types of theories that suggest why we sleep?

A

Adaptation theories, recuperation theories, and consolidation theories

300
Q

What are adaptation theories of why we sleep?

A

Humans evolved to sleep during the nighttime to conserve energy and to avoid predation

301
Q

Do adaptation theories focus on when or why we sleep to explain the advantages of animal fitness?

A

Focus on when not why we sleep

302
Q

What do recuperation theories suggest about sleep?

A

Argue that being awake disrupts the body’s homeostasis and sleep is necessary to restore it

303
Q

The evidence that muscle growth, protein synthesis, tissue repair, and growth hormone release occur primarily during sleep support which type of sleep theory?

A

Recuperation

304
Q

Since humans are heavily dependent on vision and those who walked at night were more susceptible to predators, what theory of sleep does this support?

A

Adaptation theory

305
Q

Sleep deprived subjects experience decreased immune function eventually leading to death supports which theory of sleep?

A

Recuperation theory

306
Q

What does The consolidation theory suggests?

A

Sleep is essential to maintain proper brain plasticity

307
Q

What is brain plasticity?

A

Changes in the structure and organisation of the brain

308
Q

What type of sleep theory posits that sleep helps process information and experiences learned throughout the day and helps strengthen a memory’s neural network within long term storage

A

Consolidation theory

309
Q

What does sleep allow for according to the consolidation theory?

A

Better stabilized and more readily available for conscious recall

310
Q

What is the circadian rhythm?

A

The internal biological timing mechanism that regulates sleep and other biological processes

311
Q

The biological clock works on what time table? What is it controlled by?

A

24 hours; light

312
Q

What is the circadian control centre?

A

Superchiasmatic nucleus

313
Q

What is the superchiasmatic nucleus composed of? Where is it located?

A

Located in the retina; specialised ganglion cells that respond directly to light and project to a cluster of about 20k neurons in the hypothalamus

314
Q

What does the superchiasmatic nucleus do?

A

Circadian control centre, processes information concerning the length of day and night

315
Q

To what gland does the superchiasmatic nucleus send the information it receives concerning the length of day and night?

A

Pineal gland

316
Q

Where is the pineal gland located in relation to the hypothalamus?

A

Dorsal to the hypothalamus

317
Q

When the superchiasmatic nucleus sends information to the pineal glands, what response does this elicit?

A

Increase or decrease production of the body become more relaxed or sleepy

318
Q

What do increased levels of melatonin cause the body to do?

A

Cause the body to become more relaxed and sleepy

319
Q

What does the presence of light eventually cause the pineal gland to do?

A

Release less melatonin

320
Q

What does the absence of light eventually cause the pineal gland to do?

A

Increases melatonin release

321
Q

What does general sleep deprivation cause?

A

Irritability and impaired learning and memory function

322
Q

What are sleep disorders?

A

Any medical disorder that negatively affects normal, healthy sleep patterns

323
Q

What are the two categories of sleep disorders?

A

Insomnia and hypersomnia

324
Q

What type of sleep disorder encompasses all persistent disorders that cause someone to struggle to fall or remain asleep?

A

Insomnia

325
Q

What type of sleep disorder include disorders of excessive sleepiness or excessive sleep?

A

Hypersomnia

326
Q

What do insomniacs do that exacerbates their problem? How does this occur?

A

Take alcohol/sleeping pills. These reduce R.E.M. sleep; leads to tolerance of drugs and need to take more for the same effects; withdrawal if the drugs are removed

327
Q

What is sleep apnea?

A

A person with sleep apnea will periodically stop breathing then suddenly awake for a gasp of air before falling back asleep

328
Q

How many times per night does the sleep apnea cycle occur?

A

100x per night

329
Q

Which is more common hypersomnia or insomnia?

A

Insomnia

330
Q

Is sleep apnea a type of hypersomnia or insomnia?

A

Insomnia

331
Q

What is the most widely studied hypersomnia disorder?

A

Narcolepsy

332
Q

What is narcolepsy?

A

A disorder characterized by severe daytime sleepiness and brief 5-10 minute bouts of sleep which cause the sleeper to enter slow wave and R.E.M. Sleep

333
Q

How are states of consciousness that cannot be naturally induced formed?

A

Drugs

334
Q

What are the induced states of consciousness?

A

Meditation, hypnosis, and consciousness altering drugs

335
Q

What is a mind body practice that focuses attention and induces relaxation?

A

Meditation

336
Q

Meditation enables one to focus on his or her _____ or _____ processes while ignoring _______ distractors

A

Physical, mental, external

337
Q

What type of brain waves does meditation produce?

A

Alpha and theta waves

338
Q

Is meditation self induced or induced by others?

A

Self induced

339
Q

Is hypnosis self induced or induced by others?

A

Employed by others

340
Q

What induced state of consciousness causes a state of relaxation that opens subjects up to the power of suggestion?

A

Hypnosis

341
Q

What are consciousness altering drugs?

A

A way to induce altered states of consciousness through changing one’s sensory perception, thought process, mood, and behaviour

342
Q

What is another name for consciousness altering drugs?

A

Psychoactive drugs

343
Q

What are the three types of consciousness altering drugs?

A

Depressants, stimulants, and hallucinogens

Psychology (8 decks)

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