The Digestive System Flashcards
1
Q
What are the 2 divisions of the digestive system?
A
Organs of the alimentary canal, and accessory digestive organs
2
Q
What is the alimentary canal also called?
A
the gastrointestinal (GI) tract
3
Q
What is another name for the GI tract?
A
the alimentary canal
4
Q
what structures make up the alimentary canal?
A
Mouth pharynx esophagus stomach small intestine large intestine anus
5
Q
what are the accessory digestive organs?
A
Teeth tongue gall bladder salivary glands liver pancreas
6
Q
what forms the opening of the mouth?
A
the lips
7
Q
what forms the floor of the mouth?
A
the tongue
8
Q
what does the tongue attach to?
A
hyoid bone (inferior and posterior)
mandible (jawbone)
lingual frenulum
9
Q
what is the hyoid bone?
A
one of the bones that the tongue connects to , underneath and towards the back
10
Q
what is the mandible?
A
the jawbone. the tongue connect to it
11
Q
what is the lingual frenulum?
A
vertical mucous membrane by which the body of the tongue is attached to the floor of the mouth
12
Q
what form the walls of the mouth?
A
cheeks
13
Q
what forms the roof of the mouth?
A
hard and soft palates
14
Q
what is the uvula?
A
it forms the posterior border of the mouth and hangs inferiorly from the soft palate
15
Q
what forms the posterior border of the wall and hangs inferiorly from the soft palate?
A
uvula
16
Q
what is mastication?
A
chewing of food by the teeth
17
Q
what is an enzyme that is present in saliva?
A
amylase
18
Q
what does amylase do?
A
breaks down starches
19
Q
how many teeth are in the human mouth?
A
32
20
Q
what is the shape and purpose of incisors?
A
chisel-shaped, for biting
21
Q
what is the shape and purpose of canines?
A
pointed, for tearing
22
Q
what is the shape and purpose of premolars?
A
increasingly flat, for grinding
23
Q
what is the shape and purpose of molars?
A
flat, for crushing
24
Q
what is the name of the first incisor from center?
A
central incisor
25
what is the name of the second incisor from center?
lateral incisor
26
what is another name for canines?
cuspids
27
what is another name for cuspids?
canines
28
what is another name for premolars?
bicuspids
29
what is another name for bicuspids?
premolars
30
what structure is the upper arch of teeth located in?
the maxilla (hard palate)
31
what is another term for the hard palate?
maxilla
32
what structure contains the lower arch of teeth?
mandible
33
what are the three main parts of the tooth?
crown, neck, and root
34
what is the crown of the tooth?
visible portion that lies above the gumline
35
what is the neck of the tooth?
within the upper portion of the gums (gingiva)
36
what is gingiva?
the gums
37
what is another term for the gums?
gingiva
38
what is the root of the tooth?
largest portion and located within the alveolar process of the jaw bone
39
what is the pulp cavity of the tooth?
in the center of each tooth, contains nerves and blood vessels.
40
what is in the center of each tooth, contains nerves and blood vessels?
pulp cavity
41
what is nervous innervation?
allows for sensations of heat, cold, and pain
42
what allows for sensations of heat, cold, and pain in the tooth?
nervous innervation
43
what is the root canal?
thin, vertical portion of the pulp cavity that reaches down into the alveolar process
44
what is the thin, vertical portion of the pulp cavity that reaches down into the alveolar process?
the root canal
45
what is dentin?
bone-like substance composing most of each tooth
46
what is the bone-like substance composing most of each tooth?
dentin
47
what is enamel?
very hard connective tissue on the surface of the crown, protects the rest of the tooth
48
what is the very hard connective tissue on the surface of the crown, protects the rest of the tooth?
enamel
49
what does the tongue do?
Grips the food and constantly repositions it between the teeth.
50
what is the bolus?
compact mass of chewed-up food
51
what is a compact mass of chewed-up food?
bolus
52
what are papillae?
raised bumps on the tongue
53
what are the raised bumps on the tongue called?
papillae
54
what are the names of the 3 types of papillae?
circumvallate
fungiform
filiform
55
which papillae contain taste buds?
circumvallate and fungiform
56
which papillae look like 2 concentric domes
circumvallate
57
which papillae look like raised orbs?
fungiform
58
which papillae look more like seaweed?
filiform
59
what are taste buds?
chemical receptors that are stimulated by the chemical composition of food
60
what are chemical receptors that are stimulated by the chemical composition of food?
taste buds
61
where are the taste buds found?
primarily on the tongue but also on the surface of the mouth and the wall of the pharynx
62
what is another word for the pharynx?
the throat
63
what are the 3 parts of the pharynx?
nasopharynx
oropharynx
laryngopharynx
64
describe the muscles in the pharynx that create peristalsis
2 types of skeletal muscles
they contract alternatively
circumferential outer layer
longitudinal inner layer
65
what is the epiglottis?
flap of elastic cartilage that prevents food from entering the larynx while swallowing.
66
what is the flap of elastic cartilage that prevents food from entering the larynx while swallowing?
epiglottis
67
if food or liquid does get into the larynx, how does the body get it out?
coughing
68
what can aspiration lead to?
aspiration pneumonia
69
what organ extends from the pharynx to the stomach, traveling through an opening in the diaphragm on its way?
esophagus
70
what are the 4 layers of the esophagus, from innermost to outermost?
mucosa
submucosa
muscularis externa
serosa
71
what is the mucosa in the esophagus?
innermost layer, secretes mucus into the interior of the GI tract
72
what is the submucosa in the esophagus?
contains blood, lymph vessels, lymph nodes, nerves, and mucous glands
73
what are the 2 layers of the muscularis externa in the esophagus?
inner circumferential fibers
| outer longitudinal fibers
74
what does the serosa in the esophagus do?
made up of cells that make serous fluid
75
what other organs does the esophagus contain the same types of tissue as?
stomach
small intestine
large intestine
76
what is peristalsis?
moves the bolus through the pharynx to the esophagus and into the stomach
77
what moves the bolus through the pharynx to the esophagus and into the stomach?
peristalsis
78
describe the location of the stomach
On the left side of the abdomen, below the diaphragm.
79
what separates the esophagus from the stomach?
cardiac sphincter
80
what are 2 other terms for the cardiac sphincter?
lower esophageal sphincter (LES) and gastroesophageal sphincter
81
what are 2 other terms for lower esophageal sphincter (LES)?
cardiac sphincter and gastroesophageal sphincter
82
what are 2 other terms for gastroesophageal sphincter?
cardiac sphincter and lower esophageal sphincter (LES)
83
what is the pyloric sphincter?
separates stomach from the small intestine
84
what separates stomach from the small intestine?
pyloric sphincter
85
what is the lesser curvature?
concave, extends inward on the shorter side
86
which part of the stomach is concave, extends inward on the shorter side?
lesser curvature
87
what is the greater curvature?
extends outward on the longer side
88
which part of the stomach extends outward on the longer side?
greater curvature
89
what covers the stomach?
peritoneum
90
what 2 types of peritoneum are attached to the stomach?
lesser omentum
| greater omentum
91
where is the lesser omentum?
attaches the lesser curvature of the stomach to the liver
92
which peritoneum attaches the lesser curvature of the stomach to the liver?
lesser omentum
93
where is the greater omentum?
attaches to the greater curvature and hangs down like an apron, attaching to the posterior wall of the abdomen and covering the transverse colon and anterior of the small intestines
94
which peritoneum attaches to the greater curvature and hangs down like an apron, attaching to the posterior wall of the abdomen and covering the transverse colon and anterior of the small intestines?
greater omentum
95
what are the 4 parts of the stomach?
cardia
fundus
body
pyloric region
96
what is the cardia?
where food enters the stomach from the cardiac sphincter
97
what part of the stomach does food enter from the sphincter?
cardia
98
what is the fundus?
the dome-shaped top of the stomach just under the diaphragm
99
what is the dome-shaped top of the stomach just under the diaphragm?
fundus
100
what is the body of the stomach?
the wider mid-portion
101
what is the wider mid-portion of the stomach?
the body
102
what is the pyloric region?
funnel-shaped bottom of the stomach
103
what are the 2 main purposes of the stomach?
temporary storage of food
| mechanical food breakdown
104
how much food can the stomach store?
up to 2 liters of partially digested food
105
what are rugae?
folds within the stomach wall that allow it to expand when full
106
what are rugae?
folds within the stomach wall that allow it to expand when full
107
what are folds within the stomach wall that allow it to expand when full?
rugae
108
what is mechanical food breakdown in the stomach?
when muscular walls contract vigorously and mix food with juices that are secreted whenever food enters the stomach
109
what are the 3 layers of stomach muscle, from innermost to outermost?
oblique
circular
longitudinal
110
what is the extra muscular layer in the stomach called and what does it do?
oblique layer, allows the stomach to mix food more efficiently with the gastric juices
111
what protects the wall of the stomach and the first part of the duodenum?
a thick layer of mucus
112
what is the duodenum?
the beginning of the small intestine
113
what happens is gastric juice penetrates the mucus?
pepsin starts to digest stomach or duodenal lining, and can cause an ulcer
114
what is an ulcer?
which is an open sore caused by the gradual disintegration of tissues
115
what are 2 causes of ulcers?
bacterial infections
| overuse of certain drugs
116
describe how a bacterial infection can cause an ulcer
Bacterial infection from Helicobacter pylori (H. Pylori) eats away at mucosal lining. Once a hole is formed, gastric juice enters other areas in the abdominal region, causing bleeding or damage to other organs.
117
describe how the overuse of certain drugs can cause an ulcer
Overuse of drugs like NSAIDs (non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs) and aspirin, which damage the mucosal lining of the stomach
118
what is chyme?
contents of the stomach, a thick, soupy consistency
119
what are the contents of the stomach, a thick, soupy consistency called?
chyme
120
how does chyme enter the pyloric sphincter?
Relaxation of the pyloric sphincter allows some chyme to enter the duodenum, setting off a reflex that causes it to close back up, and the process repeats. This allows chyme to enter the small intestine slowly for thorough digestion
121
how long is the small intestine?
20 feet
122
which openings does the small intestine run to and from?
pyloric sphincter to the ileocecal valve
123
what is the longest part of the GI tract?
small intestine
124
what is the ileocecal valve?
it controls the entrance from the small intestine to the large intestine
125
what are the 3 sections of the small intestine?
duodenum
jejunum
ileum
126
what is the shortest section of the small intestine?
duodenum
127
what is the duodenum and what happens there?
shortest section, where enzymes from the pancreas and bile from the liver enter the small intestine
128
what is the jejunum?
second section of the small intestine
129
what is the ileum?
third section of the small intestine, slightly longer than the jejunum
130
what are the 3 structure of the small intestine that increase food absorption?
circular folds
villi
microvilli
131
what do the circular folds of the small intestine do?
increase surface area
132
what are villi?
small, finger-like projections in the small intestine
133
what are microvilli?
even smaller projections, protruding from villi
134
what parts of food are digested when chyme enters the small intestine?
proteins and carbohydrates are partially digested. fat is undigested
135
which digestive system role is mainly filled by the small intestine?
absorption
136
what does each villus contain?
blood vessels
| lacteals
137
what is a lacteal?
a lymphatic vessel
138
what is a lymphatic vessel in the small intestine called?
lacteal
139
what do villi do?
absorb molecules
140
where are nutrients carried to before entering general blood circulation?
hepatic portal circulation
141
where is the hepatic portal circulation?
the liver
142
what nutrients are absorbed into the capillary beds within the villi?
sugars and amino acids
143
how are sugars and amino acids absorbed?
they enter villi cells and then get absorbed into the capillary beds within the villi
144
what nutrients are too large to enter capillaries?
glycerol and fatty acids
145
how are glycerol and fatty acids absorbed?
they are transported to the lacteals
146
describe the path for fatty acids from the villi to the bloodstream
Fatty acids enter villi cells, get reassembled into fat molecules, and then move into the lacteals. They eventually connect to general blood circulation at the thoracic duct.
147
what type of cells produce intestinal enzymes?
epithelial cells
148
where do intestinal enzymes attach?
the plasma membrane of microvilli
149
what do intestinal enzymes digest?
peptides and sugars
150
where does the large intestine extend to and from?
the ileocecal valve to the anus
151
what are the 8 parts of the large intestine?
```
cecum
appendix
ascending colon
transverse colon
descending colon
sigmoid colon
rectum
anal canal
```
152
what is the cecum?
entrance to the large intestine through the ileocecal valve
153
what is the entrance to the large intestine through the ileocecal valve?
cecum
154
what is the appendix?
hangs from the cecum and is usually twisted
155
what hangs from the cecum and is usually twisted?
appendix
156
what is appendicitis?
when bacteria accumulates and causes inflammation of the appendix
157
what is it called when bacteria accumulates and causes inflammation of the appendix?
appendicitis
158
where is the ascending colon?
runs superiorly along the right side of the abdomen
159
which part of the colon runs superiorly along the right side of the abdomen?
ascending colon
160
what connects the ascending colon to the transverse colon?
Right colic (hepatic) flexure
161
what is the right colic (hepatic) flexure?
it connects the ascending colon to the transverse colon
162
where is the transvers colon?
runs across the abdomen
163
which part of the colon runs across the abdomen?
transverse colon
164
what connects the transverse colon to the descending colon?
left colic (splenic) flexure
165
what is the left colic (splenic) flexure?
it connects the transverse colon to the descending colon
166
where is the descending colon?
runs along the left side of the abdomen, superiorly to the sigmoid colon
167
which part of the colon runs along the left side of the abdomen, superiorly to the sigmoid colon?
descending colon
168
where is the sigmoid colon?
travels through the pelvis, connecting with the rectum
169
what part of the colon travels through the pelvis, connecting with the rectum?
sigmoid colon
170
what is the rectum?
connects to the anal canal where feces is expelled through the anus. Last 20cm of the large intestine.
171
what connects to the anal canal where feces is expelled through the anus. Last 20cm of the large intestine?
rectum
172
how long is the rectum?
20cm
173
what is the anal canal?
the end of the GI tract
174
what is the end of the GI tract?
the anal canal
175
what are the 2 sphincters in the anal canal?
internal
| external
176
what is the internal anal sphincter?
involuntary smooth muscle
177
what is the external anal sphincter?
voluntary skeletal muscle
178
what is the main function of the large intestine?
to propel waste from the body
179
what are secondary functions of the large intestine?
reabsorb some water and electrolytes
180
how much water enters the digestive tract daily through eating and drinking?
1.5 liters
181
how much water enters the digestive tract daily, carrying the various substances secreted by the digestive glands?
8.5 liters
182
where does the water that enters the digestive tract go?
95% is absorbed by the small intestine
| much of the remaining 5% is absorbed into the cells of the walls of the colon
183
what vitamins are absorbed by the cells of the walls of the colon, and how are they produced?
vitamins K and some B vitamins, produced by intestinal bacteria
184
what happens when materials pass through the colon too quickly?
excess water is no reabsorbed and diarrhea will result
185
what can extreme/prolonged diarrhea cause?
dehydration and electrolyte loss
186
what is feces made up of?
75% water
| 25% solid matter
187
of the 25% of feces that is made up of solid matter, what is its composition?
almost 1/3 intestinal bacteria
the remainder is undigested plant material, fats, waste products, inorganic material, mucus, and dead cells from intestinal lining
188
which organs send secretions to the duodenum?
liver, pancreas, and gallbladder
189
where is the pancreas?
deep within the abdominal wall
190
what does the pancreas do?
sends pancreatic juice to the duodenum via the pancreatic duct
191
what does pancreatic juice contain?
sodium bicarbonate
| digestive enzymes
192
what does sodium bicarbonate from the pancreas do?
neutralizes the chyme and makes the pH of the small intestine slightly basic
193
what neutralizes the chyme and makes the pH of the small intestine slightly basic?
sodium bicarbonate
194
what are 3 digestive enzymes that the pancreas makes?
pancreatic amylase
trypsin
lipase
195
what does pancreatic amylase do?
digests starch to maltose
196
what does trypsin do?
digests protein to peptides
197
what does lipase do?
digest fat droplets to glycerol and fatty acids
198
what is the hepatopancreatic ampulla?
area where both the pancreatic duct and hepatic duct empty into the duodenum
199
what is the area where both the pancreatic duct and hepatic duct empty into the duodenum?
hepatopancreatic ampulla
200
what are the 3 functions of the liver?
produces bile
stores glucose as glycogen
produces urea
201
where is bile stored?
in the gallbladder
202
what does bile do once it goes to the small intestine?
emulsifies fats
203
how is bile sent to the duodenum?
via the common bile duct
204
why does bile look green?
it contains pigments that are products of hemoglobin breakdown
205
what are bile salts?
emulsifying agents that break fat up into fat droplets that can mix with water. Emulsified fat is more easily processed by enzymes.
206
what does the liver do between meals?
breaks down glycogen to glucose to maintain a constant glucose concentration (homeostasis) in the blood.
207
what is urea produced from?
amino groups that are removed from excess amino acids
208
which pancreatic enzyme digests starch to maltose?
pancreatic amylase
209
which pancreatic enzyme digests protein to peptides?
trypsin
210
which pancreatic enzyme digests fat droplets to glycerol and fatty acids?
lipase
211
what are the 4 main roles of the digestive system?
ingestion
digestion
absorption
defecation
212
what is ingestion?
when food enters the mouth
213
what is is called when food enters the mouth?
ingestion
214
what is digestion?
food breakdown that occurs when food is moved, mixed, and exposed to enzymes along the GI tract
215
what is food breakdown that occurs when food is moved, mixed, and exposed to enzymes along the GI tract?
digestion
216
what is mechanical digestion?
food is physically broken down into smaller pieces
217
what is it called when food is physically broken down into smaller pieces?
mechanical digestion
218
what are 3 examples of mechanical digestion?
When teeth chew food
When the stomach churns and mixes food
As food is moved and squeezed along the GI tract
219
what is chemical digestion?
chemical breakdown of food by enzymes into smaller nutrients
220
what is the chemical breakdown of food by enzymes into smaller nutrients called?
chemical digestion
221
what is absorption?
moving digested food into the bloodstream
222
what is moving digested food into the bloodstream called?
absorption
223
what is the excretion of indigestible food from the anus?
defecation
224
what is defecation?
excretion of indigestible food from the anus
225
how is chemical digestion carried out in the mouth?
saliva is released by the salivary glands
226
what are the 3 salivary glands?
parotid
sublingual
submandibular
227
what is salivary amylase?
enzyme in saliva that begins the chemical breakdown of starches
228
what is the enzyme in saliva that begins the chemical breakdown of starches?
salivary amylase
229
how is mechanical digestion done in the mouth?
Food is broken down into smaller pieces by the teeth and the tongue, becoming the bolus
The bolus is swallowed into the pharynx and then moved into the esophagus with peristalsis
230
in which 2 structures does no ingestion, digestion, absorption, or defecation happen?
pharynx and esophagus
231
how much absorption happens in the stomach?
little to none
232
what is gastrin?
a hormone that stimulates the stomach to secrete gastric juices
233
what 3 things are in gastric juices?
Pepsinogens
Mucus
Hydrochloric acid
234
what are pepsinogens?
a pre-enzyme secreted by the chief cells in the stomach
235
what is a pre-enzyme secreted by the chief cells in the stomach?
pepsinogen
236
how does hydrochloric acid interact with pepsinogens?
Hydrochloric acid converts the inactive pepsinogen into the active enzyme pepsin, which begins the breakdown of proteins
237
what secretes hydrochloric acid?
the parietal cells in the wall of the stomach body
238
what do the parietal cells in the wall of the stomach body secrete?
hydrochloric acid
239
what does hydrochloric acid do?
Generates a very acidic pH of 1.3-3.5
Kills many of the bacteria ingested along with food
Low pH stops the activity of salivary amylase
Activates pepsin
240
what does stomach mucus do?
protects the stomach lining from hydrochloric acid and pepsinogens
241
what protects the stomach lining from hydrochloric acid and pepsinogens?
mucus
242
how does the stomach do mechanical digestion?
Muscularis externa churns and mixes the food, breaking it into smaller pieces
Peristalsis moves the food toward the small intestine
243
what happens in the small intestine?
Digestion continues and absorption begins. By the end of the small intestine, digestion is complete and most absorption of nutrients into the bloodstream has happened. Bacteria, undigested food, and water remain
244
what are the 2 hormones that chyme stimulates the small intestine to make?
cholecystokinin
| secretin
245
what does cholecystokinin do?
causes the gallbladder to release bile and the pancreas to secrete more juice
246
what does secretin do?
causes the liver to secrete bile and the pancreas to secrete more juice
247
what does bile do?
breaks down fat into smaller pieces and is needed for the absorption of fats
248
what are the result of the first step of protein digestion?
peptides
249
what happens to peptides in the small intestine?
they are digested by peptidases to amino acids
250
what is the result of the first step of starch digestion?
maltose
251
what happens to maltose in the small intestine?
it is digested by maltase to glucose
252
what happens in the large intestine?
What remains of food enters via ileocecal valve
The undigested food is compacted to be prepared for defecation
Water is absorbed to form feces
Vitamins and ions are also absorbed
Bacteria metabolize the remaining nutrients, producing vitamins K and B
Feces travels to the rectum where it is defecated via the anus
253
what is satiety?
the sensation of being full
254
what is the sensation of being full?
satiety
255
what is hunger?
the internal drive to find and eat food, often experienced as a negative sensation (churning, growling, pain in the stomach)
256
what is the internal drive to find and eat food, often experienced as a negative sensation (churning, growling, pain in the stomach)?
hunger
257
what is the hypothalamus?
region in the brain that plays a role in hunger and satiety
258
what is the region in the brain that plays a role in hunger and satiety?
hypothalamus
259
what happens if the hypothalamus is damaged?
can take away the ability to regulate hunger/satiety. Weight gain is almost certain in these instances
260
how is the hypothalamus triggered?
Drop in blood nutrients stimulates the feeding center in the hypothalamus and signals the body to feel hungry
When blood nutrients rise, the satiety center is activated and the desire to continue eating declines
Constantly processing signals from a variety of nerves in the body that influence food intake
261
how does the stomach manage satiety?
As the stomach expands, receptors within the stomach wall send signals to the brain and the desire to keep eating declines
262
what hormones increase hunger?
ghrelin
endorphins
neuropeptide-Y
263
what hormones decrease hunger?
leptin
serotonin
cholecystokinin (CCK)
264
where is ghrelin produced and how does it work?
by the stomach, stimulates the hunger center as it deactivates the satiety center
265
where is leptin produced and how does it work?
by adipose tissue (fat cells), alerts the brain to turn off the hunger center and activate the satiety center while eating
266
what are the 3 major biochemical categories of food?
carbohydrates
proteins
lipids
267
what are carbohydrates?
starches and sugars
268
which biochemical food group is starches and sugars?
carbohydrates
269
what are examples of sugars?
milk, fruit
270
what are examples of starches?
grain, starchy vegetables
271
what are proteins?
made up of amino acids
272
which biochemical food group is made up of amino acids?
proteins
273
what are complete proteins?
ones that contain all 9 essential amino acids
274
what are essential amino acids?
one that we are unable to make
275
how many essential amino acids are there for adults?
9
276
how many essential amino acids are there for infants?
10
277
what are some examples of complete proteins?
Meat, poultry, eggs, milk, dairy products, soybeans
278
what are incomplete proteins?
ones that do not contain all 9 essential amino acids
279
what are some examples of incomplete proteins
grains, legumes, seeds, nuts
280
which proteins contain all 9 essential amino acids?
complete proteins
281
which proteins do not contain all 9 essential amino acids?
incomplete proteins
282
what are the 3 types of lipids?
saturated fat
unsaturated fat
cholesterol
283
what are examples of saturated fat?
meat and dairy products (butter)
284
what are examples of unsaturated fat?
nuts and vegetable oils (olive oil)
285
what are examples of cholesterol?
meat (beef), cheese, eggs (yolk)
286
what are vitamins?
organic compounds that are not consumed in metabolic reaction but help enzymes carry out metabolic reactions. Vitamins maintain growth and good cellular health
287
what are the 2 types of vitamins?
water-soluble
| fat-soluble
288
what are water-soluble vitamins?
not able to be stored in the body, excreted in the urine
289
what are fat-soluble vitamins?
stored in body fat. Ingesting too much can be problematic
290
what are minerals?
inorganic compounds. Like vitamins, not consumed in metabolic reaction but combined with other nutrients to form necessary body substances
291
what are some good sources of minerals?
milk, some meats, legumes, and vegetables
292
what are the 7 essential minerals?
```
Calcium
Chloride
Magnesium
Phosphorus
Potassium
Sodium
Sulfur
```
293
how many other minerals are needed, in trace amounts?
12
294
what is metabolism?
set of chemical reactions essential for sustaining life
295
what is the set of chemical reactions essential for sustaining life?
metabolism
296
what is anabolism and when is it used?
smaller molecules are combined to make larger, more complex molecules. Used during growth and repair phases of the cell
297
what is it called when smaller molecules are combined to make larger, more complex molecules?
anabolism
298
what is catabolism?
set of reactions where large molecules are broken down to be used as energy sources
299
what is a set of reactions where large molecules are broken down to be used as energy sources?
catabolism
300
what is ATP?
most widely used form of energy in the cells
| Can donate one phosphate group, transferring energy from catabolic reactions to be used for anabolism
301
what is ADP?
adenosine diphosphate - one less phosphate group than ATP
302
what is cellular respiration?
the process by which cells generate ATP.
303
what is the process by which cells generate ATP?
cellular respiration
304
what is aerobic respiration, what does it require, and what does it release?
most organisms use this type of respiration. Requires oxygen and a fuel, and releases CO2, H2O, and ATP
305
most organisms use this type of respiration. Requires oxygen and a fuel, and releases CO2, H2O, and ATP
aerobic respiration
306
when is glucose metabolism used?
primarily during high energy demands
307
what compound is used primarily during high energy demands?
glucose
308
how many ATP molecules can 1 molecule of glucose yield?
up to 38
309
when is lipid metabolism used?
primarily during low-energy activities
310
what compound is primarily used for low-energy activities?
lipids
311
where are lipids metabolized, and how?
in the liver, with the beta-oxidation process
312
how much ATP do lipids yield?
twice as much as when a carbohydrate or protein is broken down
313
what are lipids broken down into in the mitochondria?
acetic acid
314
when is protein metabolism used?
only when carbohydrates and fats are not available
315
what is made when the amino group is removed from proteins?
ammonia
316
how is ammonia made?
when the amino group is removed from proteins
317
how is acetic acid made?
when lipids are broken down in the mitochondria
318
what is ammonia converted to, where, and how?
to urea, in the liver, by combining ammonia with CO2
319
Why do the circumferential and longitudinal muscle layers switch from pharynx to esophagus?
This is due to the transition from voluntary muscle movement to involuntary
320
What are 4 functions of the large intestine?
It has bacteria
Water absorption
Compaction
Defecation
321
What are the 2 parts of the pyloric region?
Pyloric antrum (first) and pyloric canal (between the antrum and the sphincter)
322
What is another name for the pyloric region?
Pyloris
323
What controls peristalsis?
Autonomic nervous system
324
What type of cells are villi lined with?
Absorptive cells
325
What is the accessory pancreatic duct?
A backup if the main one gets backed up
326
What is the backup pancreatic duct called?
Accessory pancreatic duct
327
What is the cystic duct?
From the gallbladder to the common bile duct
328
What is the area from the gallbladder to the common bile duct called?
Cystic duct
329
What is the common hepatic duct?
From the liver to the common bile duct
330
What is the area from the liver to the common bile duct called?
Common hepatic duct
331
What are some water-soluble vitamins?
B1, B2, B3, folic acid
332
What are some fat-soluble vitamins?
A, D, K
333
What does the suffix -ogen mean?
A pre-enzyme
334
Which type of metabolism requires energy?
Anabolism
335
Which type of metabolism releases energy?
Catabolism
336
What is the term for “in the absence of oxygen?”
Anaerobic
