Introduction Flashcards
1
Q
What is the difference between anatomy and physiology?
A
Anatomy is structure and physiology is function. Anatomy determines physiology
2
Q
What are the 4 different tissue types?
A
connective
epithelial
nervous
muscle
3
Q
what is epithelial tissue?
A
covers body surfaces and lines cavities
specialized in secretion and absorption
structure is tightly packed
typically in layers that shed away, so there is constant cell division
4
Q
what is muscle tissue?
A
contractile tissue
5
Q
what is connective tissue?
A
bones, tendons, ligaments, blood
6
Q
what is nervous tissue?
A
communication tissue, “wiring of the body”
7
Q
what parts make up the integumentary system?
A
skin, hair, sweat glands, oil producing glands, sensory nerves
8
Q
what are the 3 layers of skin?
A
epidermis
dermis
hypodermis
9
Q
what does the skeletal system do?
A
framework for the body, supports the body, protects the organs
10
Q
what types of muscle are there?
A
cardiac - striated and involuntary
skeletal - striated and voluntary
smooth muscle - involuntary
11
Q
what parts make up the nervous system?
A
brain, spinal cord, nerves
12
Q
what does the nervous system do?
A
communicates with the body, and detects external stimuli
13
Q
what does the digestive system do?
A
absorbs nutrients and gets them into the bloodstream
14
Q
what is the endocrine system?
A
organs that regulate processes, they secrete hormones that regular metabolism and reproductive cycles
15
Q
what is the cardiovascular system and what does it do?
A
heart and blood vessels. it moves low-oxygen blood to the lungs to get more oxygen, and distributes nutrients from the digestive system
16
Q
what system is the lymphatic system part of?
A
the circulatory system
17
Q
what does the lymphatic system do?
A
its’ a series of vessels that return excess fluid from the cardiovascular system and fight off disease
18
Q
what does the respiratory system do?
A
brings in oxygen and excretes co2
19
Q
what is the reproductive system?
A
specialized organs and cells that produce life
20
Q
what is catabolism?
A
breaking down large units into smaller ones
21
Q
what is anabolism?
A
synthesis of more complex structures
22
Q
what are the 3 steps in creating ATP?
A
glycolysis
citric acid cycle
electron transport chain
23
Q
what is glycolysis?
A
when a molecule of glucose is broken down into 2 pyruvic acid molecules and 2 ATP molecules
24
Q
what is the citric acid cycle?
A
when the pyruvic acid molecules are broken down into 2 more ATP molecules and electrons
25
what is the electron transport chain?
when the body uses electrons to create most of its ATP
26
what is ATP?
adenosine triphosphate. an energy rich molecule that powers cellular activities
27
what glands are in the endocrine system?
```
thyroid
adrenal
hypothalamus
pituitary
pineal
```
28
which glands are inside the brain?
hypothalamus
pituitary
pineal
29
what is the alimentary canal?
the entire passage from the mouth to the anus
30
what does the chemical level entail?
looking at atoms
31
what does the cellular level entail?
looking at cells
32
what is tissue?
a collection of one cell type
33
what are the 6 levels of organization in the body?
```
chemical
cellular
tissue
organ
organ system
organism
```
34
what are adipocytes
fat cells that help insulate and regulate body temperature
35
what are the parts of the large intestine?
appendix
rectum
anus
36
what is metabolism?
all chemical reactions that take place in the body that enable us to function
37
what are the parts of the lymphatic system?
thymus
lymph nodes
lymph vessels
spleen
38
what does the urinary system do?
excretes waste, regulates water and electrolyte balance in the blood
39
which 3 systems help move nutrients and waste throughout the body?
urinary, cardiovascular, digestive
40
what is a nephron?
the functional unit of the kidney
41
what are gametes?
23-chromosome sex cells
42
what is the male gamete?
sperm cell
43
what is the female gamete?
oocyte (egg)
44
what is a zygote?
a fertilized egg
45
towards the head or upper part of a structure/body (above)
superior/cranial
46
superior/cranial
towards the head or upper part of a structure/body (above)
47
away from the head or toward lower part of a structure/body (below)
inferior/caudal
48
inferior/caudal
away from the head or toward lower part of a structure/body (below)
49
toward the front of the body (in front of)
ventral/anterior
50
ventral/anterior
toward the front of the body (in front of)
51
toward the back of the body (behind)
dorsal/posterior
52
dorsal/posterior
toward the back of the body (behind)
53
toward the midline of the body (on the inner side of)
medial
54
medial
toward the midline of the body (on the inner side of)
55
away from the midline (on the outer side of)
lateral
56
lateral
away from the midline (on the outer side of)
57
between medial and lateral
intermediate
58
intermediate
between medial and lateral
59
proximal
closer to the origin or point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk
60
closer to the origin or point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk
proximal
61
distal
farther from the origin or point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk
62
farther from the origin or point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk
distal
63
toward the body surface
superficial/external
64
superficial/external
toward the body surface
65
away from the body surface
deep/internal
66
deep/interal
away from the body surface
67
flexion
closing of a joint (bending)
68
closing of a joint (bending)
flexion
69
extension
opening of a joint (straightening)
70
opening of a joint (straightening)
extension
71
abduction
movement away from the midline
72
movement away from the midline
abduction
73
adduction
movement towards the midline
74
movement towards the midline
adduction
75
dorsiflexion
flexion superiorly occurring at the subtalar (ankle) joint (toes up)
76
flexion superiorly occurring at the subtalar (ankle) joint (toes up)
dorsiflexion
77
flexion inferiorly occurring at the subtalar (ankle joint) (toes down)
plantarflexion
78
plantarflexion
flexion inferiorly occurring at the subtalar (ankle joint) (toes down)
79
lateral movement of the wrist towards the radius
radial deviation
80
radial deviation
lateral movement of the wrist towards the radius
81
medial movement of the wrist towards the ulna
ulnar deviation
82
ulnar deviation
medial movement of the wrist towards the ulna
83
rotation of the forearm so that the palm faces posteriorly OR rotation of the ankle so the sole faces laterally
pronation
84
pronation
rotation of the forearm so that the palm faces posteriorly OR rotation of the ankle so the sole faces laterally
85
rotation of the forearm so that the palm faces anteriorly OR rotation of the ankle so the sole faces medially
supination
86
supination
rotation of the forearm so that the palm faces anteriorly OR rotation of the ankle so the sole faces medially
87
upward movement of a structure
elevation
88
elevation
upward movement of a structure
89
depression
downward movement of a structure
90
downward movement of a structure
depression
91
movement of a structure to be drawn in the posterior direction (drawn backward)
retraction
92
retraction
movement of a structure to be drawn in the posterior direction (drawn backward)
93
movement of a structure to be drawn in the anterior direction (drawn forward)
protraction
94
protraction
movement of a structure to be drawn in the anterior direction (drawn forward)
95
what is the axial region?
ribs, spine, cranium
96
what is the appendicular region?
pelvis, shoulders, collarbones, limbs
97
what is the sagittal plane?
divides the body into right and left sections
98
what is a sagittal plane right in the center called?
Median plane/midsagittal plane
99
what is the frontal/coronal plane?
divides the body into anterior and posterior sections
100
what is the transverse plane?
divides the body into superior and inferior sections
101
what is a transverse section also called?
a cross-section
102
what is an oblique section?
cuts made diagonally between horizontal and vertical planes
103
what are the 2 main cavities of the body?
dorsal and ventral
104
what cavities are in the dorsal cavity?
cranial and spinal/vertebral
105
what 2 cavities are in the ventral cavity?
thoracic and abdominopelvic
106
what 2 cavities are in the thoracic cavity?
pleural and pericardial
107
what 2 cavities are in the abdominopelvic cavity?
abdominal and pelvic
108
what are the pleural cavities?
they contain the lungs
109
what is the pericardial cavity?
is surrounds the heart and encloses the esophagus and trachea
110
what is the abdominal cavity?
houses the stomach, intestines, spleen, and liver
111
what is the pelvic cavity?
lies in the bony pelvis, houses the bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum
112
what is serosa?
a serous membrane that covers the walls of the ventral cavity and outer surface of the organs
113
what does visceral mean?
covering the organs
114
what does parietal mean?
lining the cavity
115
what is the membrane in the pericardial cavity?
visceral and parietal pericardium
116
what is the membrane in the pleural cavity?
visceral and parietal plurae
117
what is the membrane in the abdominopelvic cavity?
visceral and parietal peritoneum
118
what are the 4 quadrants of the abdominopelvic region?
right-upper (RUQ)
left-upper (LUQ)
right-lower) (RLQ)
left-lower (LLQ)
119
what are the 9 regions of the abdominopelvic region?
epigastric - upper central
right/left hypocondriac - upper corners
umbilical - central
right/left lumbar - next to the umbilical
hypogastric - lower central
right/left iliac/hypogastric - lower corners
120
what does the oral cavity contain?
mouth, teeth, tongue
121
what is the nasal cavity?
within and posterior to the nose. part of the respiratory tract
122
what are the orbital cavities?
they house the eyes
123
what are the middle ear bones?
malleus
incus
stapes
124
what are the synovial cavities?
joint cavities. they make a lubricating fluid that reduces friction
125
what are 4 biomacromolecules?
proteins
lipids
carbohydrates
nucleic acids
126
what is the plasma membrane?
surrounds the cell and contains pumps and gates (protein channels) that regulate passage of materials in and out of the cell
127
why is is better for a cell to be smaller in volume?
Smaller cells have a higher SA relative to V, compared to larger cells. This allows metabolic processes (like diffusion) to happen faster for smaller cells.
128
what are the differences between prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells?
prokaryotic are smaller, DNA is not enclosed in a nuclear membrane, do not contain many of the organelles that eukaryotic have
129
how are prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells similar?
both have plasma membrane and ribosomes
130
what is cytoplasm?
fluid portion of the cell and all the organelles outside the nucleus
131
what is another term for cytoplasm?
cytosol
132
what is the nucleus?
most prominent organelle in the cell. Contains DNA and is the control center of the cell.
133
what does the nucleolus do?
synthesizes rRNA (ribosomal RNA)
134
what is DNA?
composed of a sequence of nucleotides
135
what are chromosomes?
organized form of DNA
136
what are genes?
sections of chromosomal nucleotide sequences. Determine what proteins are synthesized in ribosomes
137
what is the nuclear membrane?
covers the nucleus
138
what are ribosomes?
Tiny manufacturing plants that assemble proteins.
Each cell produces a unique combination of proteins, dictated by the sequence of DNA nucleotides.
Often located in the ER (endoplasmic reticulum). This area is called the RER (rough endoplasmic reticulum)
139
what is contained within ribosomes?
rRNA
| Enzymes needed to form peptide bonds between amino acids
140
what is the endoplasmic reticulum?
A maze of tightly packs sac-like structures that form interconnected compartments within the cytoplasm
An extension of the outer membrane of the nucleus
Modifies and transports proteins assembled by ribosomes
141
what does smooth ER do?
responsible for synthesizing lipids, like cholesterol, which is a major component of cell membranes (liver cells have a lot of smooth ER)
142
what is the Golgi complex (apparatus)?
Stack of many flattened sacs called cisternae
Parts are connected, but most form separate compartments
Receives lipids and proteins synthesized by the ER, changes their structures, and ships them to other parts of the cell.
Portions pinch off, forming enclosed sacs called vesicles which can be transported to other organelles or exported out of the cell via fusion
Also produces lysosomes
143
what are lysosomes?
small sacs of digestive enzymes. These enzymes break down biomacromolecules (proteins, lipids, carbs, nucleic acids) that could originate inside or outside the cell. Once broken down, they can be recycled.
can also fuse with other vesicles that contain harmful bacteria, and break the bacteria down. Ex. in Tay-Sachs disease, one of the digestive enzymes in the lysosome is lacking, so a toxic lipid in the brain cannot be broken down, resulting in intellectual disability or death.
144
what is mitochondria?
Converts chemical energy from food into ATP (adenosine triphosphate), which is a high-energy molecule that provides energy for the cell.
This process is called aerobic cellular respiration, where oxygen is needed to break down food (usually in the form of glucose) into CO2, H2O, and ATP
Bound by a double membrane, with an intermembrane space between the inner and outer membranes.
Inner membrane has numerous folds to increase SA, allowing room for chemical reactions and enzymes
145
what is the cytoskeleton?
network of protein fibers that provide structural support and movement within the cell. composed by microtubules and microfilaments
146
what are microtubules?
hollow cylinders that help move chromosomes during cell division and are involved in the structure of cilia and flagella, which project from the surface of some cells
147
what are flagella?
long, whip-like structure that propels a single-celled organism through a watery medium. Also found on sperm cells
148
what are cilia?
shorter, found in greater number (hair-like). One example is along the respiratory passageways to trap and move debris
149
what are MTOC's?
microtubule-organizing center) - anchoring region for microtubules
During cell division, microtubules grow out from MTOC to assist in the movement of chromosomes into new cells
150
what is inside the MTOC?
Centrioles and basal bodies
2 centrioles - each 9 sets of 3 attached tubules, forming a hollow cylinder.
Basal bodies - anchor cilia and flagella
Both play a role in microtubule assembly
151
what are microfilaments?
flexible, solid fibers made up of 2 intertwined polymer chains of actin molecules.
152
what does actin do?
generates movement by rapidly assembling and disassembling
153
how do actin and myosin interact?
During cell division, a ring of actin associated with a protein called myosin causes the constriction of the cell to form 2 daughter cells.
In muscle cells, actin and myosin slide past each other, shortening the muscle fiber and causing muscle contraction
154
what is the cell coat?
made of polysaccharide (carbohydrate) side chains which project out from the proteins (glycoproteins) and lipids (glycolipids) that comprise the cell membrane. These side chains allow cells to recognize each other, make contact, and sometimes adhere to each other
155
what is the extracellular matrix?
a substance that many eukaryotic cells secrete, and contains tough protein fibers called collagen
156
what is a cell wall?
animals and humans do not have a cell wall, but most plants and bacteria do.
In plants, this consists of layers of cellulose fibers, giving it much strength and support.
In bacteria, may contain peptidoglycan - a 3D mesh-like structure made of sugars and amino acids.
Gram-positive have a very thick layer of peptidoglycan and retain a violet stain
Gram-negative have a thin layer and do not retain the violet stain
Penicillin interferes with the cell wall in gram-positive bacteria, rendering it unprotected
157
what is the fluid mosaic model?
Membrane is a phospholipid bi-layer in which proteins are partially or fully embedded. The pattern is not static because the proteins are fluid and can move around.
158
what does amphipathic mean?
having both hydrophilic and hydrophobic parts
159
what does hydrophilic mean?
water loving
160
what does hydrophobic mean?
water fearing
161
how are the lipids arranged in in cell membrane?
Arranged in a bi-layer with the hydrophilic polar heads on the inner and outer faces and the hydrophobic fatty acid tails forming the inner core
162
what does cholesterol do?
stabilizer against heat and cold. It's a hydrophobic steroid lipid with a polar hydroxyl group. It acts as a spacer for the tails to reduce solidification in low temps and stabilizes the heads by restricting motion in high temps.
163
what are integral proteins?
span across the lipid bi-layer, firmly bound. 1 or more hydrophobic regions embedded in the core and hydrophilic regions extending out of each face. Some are big enough to weave in and out of a membrane several times.
164
what are peripheral proteins?
only on the inner or outer surface. Can attach to exposed regions of integral proteins.
165
what is selective permeability?
allowing only certain material to pass in a certain direction (nutrients in and waste out)
166
what is diffusion?
small molecules move through the membrane from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. Until they are equally distributed.
167
what is another name for diffusion?
passive transport
168
what is the concentration gradient?
difference in the concentration of a substance from one place to another.
169
what is osmosis?
diffusion of water
170
what does isotonic mean?
equal amount of solute (sugars, salts, etc. in an aqueous solution) on either side of the membrane
171
what does hypotonic mean?
Solution contains less solute than what's in the cell, which can cause overhydration and even bursting of the cell.
172
what does hypertonic mean?
Solution contains more solute and less water than what's in the cell, causing the cell to lose water (ex. drinking saltwater)
173
what is facilitated diffusion?
an integral carrier protein binds to specific molecules (usually ones that are too large to pass through the lipid bilayer, like sugars and amino acids) and releases it to the other side.
174
what is active transport?
molecules or ions are pumped against the concentration gradient. Carrier proteins AND additional energy are needed.
175
what is the sodium-potassium pump?
Na+ diffuse inward and have to be returned outward. K+ diffuses outward and must be returned inward, maintaining an electrical gradient across the membrane.
176
what is endocytosis?
biomacromolecule outside the cell is enclosed in an invagination of the cell membrane to form a vesicle inside the cell and bring it in. An active process because it requires energy, but NOT to be confused with active transport.
177
what is phagocytosis?
extremely large objects, like other cells. Once it's enclosed in a vesicle, it fuses with lysosomes in the cell and is digested. Ex. white blood cells destroying bacteria
178
what is pinocytosis?
tiny droplets of fluids. The cell membrane pinches inwards, since it doesn’t need a whole vesicle (pseudopod)
179
what is receptor-mediated endocytosis?
integral receptor proteins bind with a signaling molecule (ligand) sent from another cell (often in the form of a hormone). When this happens, the protein and others around it change shape, activating enzymes that can catalyze energy or structural changes in the cell.
180
what is a ligand?
signaling molecule sent from another cell (often in the form of a hormone)
181
what is exocytosis?
biomacromolecule inside the cell is enclosed in the membrane of a vesicle, usually formed by breaking off the Golgi complex. Then fuses with the cell membrane and ejects the biomacromolecule.
182
excretion involves which 3 systems?
urinary, respiratory, digestive
183
What are cisternae?
Flattend sacs in the Golgi complex
184
What are flattened sacs in the Golgi complex
Cisternae
185
What is meninges?
Tissue that surrounds the brain and spinal cord
