The development of working memory

Question 1

What is working memory?

Answer 1

The small amount of info that can be held in the mind and used in the execution of task (Cowan, 2014)
The dedicated cognitive system responsible for processing, storing and retrieving info

Question 2

Whats the difference between contemplation and memory?

Answer 2

Contemplation= holding an idea in the mind
Memory= power to revive an idea after it has disappeared from the mind
Locke 1690

Question 3

Whats the difference between primary memory and secondary memory?

Answer 3

Primary= the items in consciousness & the trailing edge of what is perceived in the world
Secondary memory= the items in storage but not currently in consciousness

Question 4

Who was one of the first to do experiments on memory, and use himself as the test subject?

Answer 4

Ebbinghaus 1885/1913

Question 5

What did Ebbinghaus do?

Answer 5

Tried to memories list of nonsense syllables.
Easy recall 7 but 12 hard.
Tested effects of delays between memorising and recall, found forgot most of words in first 20 mins

Question 6

What is the information processing approach to cognition?

Answer 6

• developed in 50s as alternative to behavioursm
• central idea: humans are processing systems (based on computer metaphor)
  = we encode, store and retrieve info then produce behavioural output (an action)
• has mem @ heart of cognitive development & specifically WM

Question 7

What are the assumptions of the information processing approach to cognition?

Answer 7

1) info moves through a series of stoes
2) info moves serially= the product for one stage of processing is the input for the next stage
3) our cognitive system has a limited capacity
4) tasks that require mental processes can be placed on a continuum relative to how much capacity they require. varies from automatic process to effortful process
e. g. can talk and walk but when try to do a maths test the change in walking and talking will be noticeable

Question 8

Where did the information processing approach to cognition start?

Answer 8

Atkinson & Schiffrin 68

• made one of first info processing models of mem
• they proposed have several stores of mem, not one system/process for storing info in mem
• thus mem made up of series of parts that work together as a process

Question 9

Describe Atkinson and Schriffrin 68 model of info processing

Answer 9

1) sensory register processes info attended by our sense
2) provides its processed in the short period before decay/being overwritten by other info
3) if paid attention move to STM where stored, where info is placed when retrieved from LTM
- how efficient the process of storage and retrieval is depends on how proficient we’re at attending to the right info in the first place (what strategies we use to store info can depend on retrieval cues)

Question 10

What is the current model of information processing ?

Answer 10

Baddeley and Hitch and Gatherole = added to the atkinson and schiffrin model
- based on current understandings
- WM replaced STM
(WM is a short term memory store where info is actively processed
- WM where we live mentally speaking
- stores info long enough for us to evaluate it
- where info is processed and transformed
- capacity limited
- if nothing done to info its losts
- if operation done e.g. verbal rehearsal, it will be transformed into LTM

Question 11

What does cognitive development involve changes in?

Answer 11

• HARDWARE
  = the capacity of mem & the speed info can be processed in different systems
• SOFTWARE
  = like childrens ability to use strategies

Question 12

What are the processing limitations in childhood?

Answer 12

Brainerd 83

1) encoding limitations
2) retrieval limitations
3) storage/capacity limitations
4) metagcognitive limitations

Question 13

What are the encoding limitations in the processing limitations in childhood?

Answer 13

Brainerd 83

• crucial part about a task/experience might not be encoded
• may be driven by failure to attend to the right info/failure to use an encoding strategy
  1) ATTENTION! - young cs difficult attending only to most important parts of task
• selective attention
  2) ENCODING STRATEGIES
• rehearsal = the repetition of info
• organisation
• elaboration

Question 14

What experiment looks at attention as an encoding limitations in the processing limitations in childhood ?

Answer 14

• MILLER & SEIER 94 =young cs need to remember location of animals but task is harder as they look at location of task- irrelevant household items
• older cs look in correct place intially = do better

Question 15

What is an example of rehearsal as an encoding strategy processing limitation in childhood?

Answer 15

Thought cs under 10 not use rehearsal = flavell 66, BUT NOW RECOGNISED THAT can use but in a more or less effective way than adults = hulme 84
EXAMPLE: Ellis & Hennelley 80
rehearsal can help some children when thinking about certain words in a partic language
- welsh speaking children
= better mem for nos in second language = english nos can be articulated more quickly

Question 16

What is an example of organisation as an encoding strategy processing limitation in childhood?

Answer 16

Moely et al 69
cs younger than 10 dont group items in categories that can be easily remembered
= will try and encode info as go, not organised info efficiently = not encode efficiently = hard to retrieve
e.g. zoo, mammal group

Question 17

What is an example of elaboration as an encoding strategy processing limitation in childhood?

Answer 17

Foley et al 93
- like adults, cs remember pairs of words better if they’re provided with association between them
-BUT young cs cant make own associations = pressley and levin 80,
or if can, less effective/distinctive elaborations = buckhalt 76

e.g. person, broom
witch riding broomstick
but young cs= just man holding broom

Question 18

What are the retrieval limitations in the processing limitations in childhood?

Answer 18

1) c know need to apply retrieval strategies but retrieve wrong one from mem e.g. rules for division not multiplication
THIS REFLECTS lack of knowledge and experience using retrieval strategies
2) adults bad @ remembering names, but good w coming up w strategies to remember
info e.g. go through the alphabet to remember names
- cs not good = 10yrs name at least one retrieval stratgey, only 1/2 5yrs can = Kreuzer 75

Question 19

What are the storage limitations in the processing limitations in childhood?

Answer 19

1) limited amount of info child can store/remember
2) experience can affect storage ability
3) span test only measure STM

Question 20

What is an example of the limited amount of info a child can store/remember as a storage limitations strategy in processing limitation in childhood?

Answer 20

Dempster 81
- give random order selection of unrelated items e.g. words/numbers, that need to be recalled in exact order
found: 2yr about 2items, 3yr about 3, stops around 7 items
SUGGESTS: storage capacity increases with age

Question 21

What is an example of how experience can affect storage ability as a storage limitations strategy in processing limitation in childhood?

Answer 21

Chi 78
= 10yrs & aduls ability to remember digits or chess positions
KEY PART: cs= chess experts, adults never played
FOUND: cs better @ remembering chess = shows experience better to encode & retrieve
BUT WAS CHESS SPECIFIC= adults outperformed on digits part

Question 22

What is an example of how span tests as a storage limitations strategy in processing limitation in childhood?

Answer 22

Alloway, Gathercole, Pickering 06
- more sensitive test of WM is when info is transformed as well as stored
= storage + processing side of working mem
WM storage space is usually 2 items less than STM span = because having to process info

Question 23

What are the metacognitive limitations in the processing limitations in childhood?

Answer 23

1) c have poor metacognitive skills & limited experience meaning may not be aware they have mem limitations SO not try to encode something properly
2) c overestimate own mem = Flavell 70
3) Young c possesss too limited WM capacity so use of strategies would impair not improve recall
4) C dont realise how useful strategies are = Ringel & Springer 80
5) c have less world knowledge that other info can be integrated w to store it better e.g. chess

Question 24

What are the errors in recall that more knowledge can cause?

Answer 24

1) recalling detail never mentioned = brown 78
2) overgeneralising facts to situations that they dont apply = nelson & gruendel
3) adding facts that fit w previous knowledge but didnt apply to a specific situation

Question 25

What study looks into how identifying which memory limitation a child is facing not always easy?

Answer 25

BRAINERD
- looked into piagets and inhelders 51 probability of judgement task =
-4/5yrs had to predict which token pulled from bag
BEST STRATEGY: predict the most frequent token of all time, yet cs only did in 1st trial
- thought storage limitation as forget frequency
- actually retrieval limitation = retrieved most recent info = last response & based decision on this
- when reminded about token frequency got it right

Question 26

What individual differences does in developing skills does working memory support?

Answer 26

1) language
2) academic skills - partic maths
3) general school readiness

Question 27

What is the relationship between language and working memory individual differences ?

Answer 27

= correlated
= gathercole and baddeley 93
- c needs vocab aquistion before starting school = 3/4yrs w better working mem learned novel labels for toys sig faster than c w poor WM
THUS WM important for language comprehension = helps process complex sentences

Question 28

What is the relationship between academic skills and working memory individual differences?

Answer 28

= causual relationship
= Alloway 10,11,14
- WM skills @4yrs predict reading & writing skills @6yrs = independent of SES
- WM @5yrs = better predictor of literacy & numeracy @ 11yrs than IQ
- WM skills in 7/8yrs predicts maths achievement even after controlling for vocab
= WM causually underpinning academic skills

Question 29

What is the cognitive profile of child with poor working memory?

Answer 29

Gathercole 08
-about 10% of c have poor WM
- sometimes confuse ADHD (inattentiveness & hyperactivity) w poor WM
- poor WM = not meet learning demands of structured activities as WM overloaded & crucial info lost
= leads child to guess/abandon activity

Question 30

What can teachers do to help a child with poor WM?

Answer 30

1) auditory support = 1 instruction @ a time, clear, short, specific, repeat
2) visual support= write instructions, use classroom checklists, use visual aids e.g. number lines in maths

Question 31

how can psychologists help cs with poor WM?

Answer 31

1) test what interventions are most effective
e. g.
- specific training on what c has issue with e.g. addition problems
- cognitive training targetting metacogntive aspects of mem e.g. strategies