The Cell Part 1 Flashcards
Cytology
The study of cells.
Magnification
What we perceive something to be versus it’s actual size
Virtual Size
The size that we visually perceive
Simple Microscope
The simple microscope consists of a single lens traditionally called a loupe. The most familiar present-day example is a reading or magnifying glass. Present-day higher-magnification lenses are often made with two glass elements that produce a colour-corrected image.
Compound Microscope
Multiple lense microscope
Resolution (clarity)
Minimal distance at which 2 points are clearly separable.
Who was the first man to see bacteria cells?
Anthony Van Leeuwenhoek in 1674
He also made the best lens to see cells at the time by 200 fold and documented the way bacteria looked and moved.
Which light gives the best resolution throughout the microscope?
Blue light
In H & E staining, which color stains the nucleus?
Blue
In H&E staining, which color stains cell bodies?
Pink
Which type of microscopy sometimes uses H&E staining?
Light (Bright-field) Microscopy
The disadvantage of staining is that it kills most of the cells making live cell imaging difficult.
What is phase-contrast microscopy?
A type of light microscopy that presents the microscopic image by projecting the differences in a phase shift. Variations in density within the specimen are amplified to enhance contrast in living cells.
What is Differential Interference Contrast microscopy?
A type of light microscopy where optical modifications are used to exaggerate differences in density, leaving the visual representation similar to that of a topographical map.
What is Fluorescence Microscopy?
A type of light microscopy that uses fluorescent tags, or the specimen’s own natural fluorescence to help visualize the specimen.
Fluorescent tagged microorganisms glow because the wavelength is smaller so you get a crisp image.
What differentiates a prokaryotic cell from a eukaryotic cell?
Eukaryotic cells have membrane-bound organelles and a membrane bound nucleus where the DNA is stored.
Prokaryotic cells generally do not have membrane-bound organelles and their DNA is usually stored as one circular chromosome. They are generally bacteria.
What is confocal scanning laser microscopy?
A type of light microscopy that uses computer enhancements to increase depth of field, leaving the full image in focus, being able to see multiple cells at once.
What is scanning electron microscopy? (SEM)
A type of electron microscopy that shows a 3D image of the surface of a cell. The images are black and white but are usually artificially colorized to show different parts of the specimen.
What is transmission electron microscopy? (TEM)
A type of electron microscopy using a thin cross-section of the specimen. The results are also black and white until artificially colorized.
What is electron microscopy?
Type of microscopy using a beam of electrons to illuminate the specimen. It is impossible currently to take an electron micrograph of living cells, as it kills them.
What is the anatomy of a prokaryotic cell?
What is the general anatomy of a eukaryotic animal cell?
What is the general anatomy of a eukaryotic plant cell?
What is the function of the nucleus?
The nucleus is the brain of the cell. It contains DNA in the form of chromosomes and controls cellular activities via genes.
The nucleolus is the ribosome building factory. The nucleus also contains some ribosomes on the outer portion
What are the different bacterial shapes?
What is the function of a ribosome?
They translate messenger RNA into amino acids
What is the function of the ER?
Membranes are built in the smooth ER and then fully constructed the rough ER
All of this is to free protons and take them where they need to go
What is the function of the Golgi apparatus?
After proteins are tagged with sugars in the rough ER, the tags say where the molecules should go
What is the difference between vesicular transport and cysternal maturation?
In vesicular transport the molecule goes through the layers to get to the end.
In cysternal maturation the molecule goes through the tunnels to the end of the Golgi apparatus.
What is the function of a lysosome?
They are the digestive systems of the cell
Where’s the function of a vacuole?
They are a general storage and space-filling structure
What is the function of the endomembrane system?
What is a peroxisome?
It is involved in hydrogen peroxide synthesis and degradation, creating free radicals tearing away electrons, breaking apart molecules and sterilizing to an extent.
What is the function of the mitochondria?
To mitochondria breaks down sugar for energy to store it
It drives energy from cellular respiration
Mitochondrial DNA exists as one circular chromosome
What is a chloroplast and what does it do?
The photosynthetic part of cells, they produce ATP through photosynthesis.
They have circular chromosomes and their own ribosomes that divide whenever they want to
They once existed as prokaryotic cells but now live symbiotically through endosymbiosis.
Study sheet for other organelles
What is the cytoskeleton?
The supportive and metabolic structure composed of microtubules microfilaments and intermediate filaments.
What do centrioles do?
Structure in the centrosome of an animal cell that pulls chromosomes apart.
What is the difference between the flagellum in a prokaryotic cell versus a eukaryotic cell?
What is the extracellular matrix?
A matrix that surrounds most cells in which the cell can sense the environment through the tugs and pulls of the extracellular membrane.
Essentially the nerve endings of the cell
Study sheet for cytoskeleton extracellular, matrix and junctions
Microtubules=bones
Microfilaments=muscles
Intermediate filaments= cartilage
What are junctions?
The way that cells form pipes and belts so tight to each other that no protein can get between them and even if they do they can’t get through every layer.
What is the anatomy of a cell wall?
What is freeze fracture?
What is the fluid mosaic model?
A model by singer and Nicholson that shows proteins embedded in the plasma membrane that help with constant recycling in and out of the cell.
The proteins are what make the cell semi-permeable.
What is protein lateral diffusion
When a protein binds to something it physically changes shape. Proteins are in constant motion.
What are some functions of transmembrane proteins?
Almost every part of the cell depends on these proteins
What are some methods of diffusion across the cytoplasmic membrane?
What is tonicity?
The ability of a solution surrounding a cell to gain or lose water
What if facilitated diffusion?
Diffusion facilitated by a protein
What is passive transport?
Diffusion
Facilitated diffusion
Osmosis
What is active transport?
What is the difference between passive and active transport?
Active sites, lock and key method
What is electrochemical gradient?
A gradient of electrons sending molecules in or out of a proton pump
What is combination transport?
Combination of passive and active transport
What is exocytosis?
The excretion of cell waste products using vesicles
AKA: Cell poop
What is endocytosis?
The taking in of nutrients for a cell.
AKA: Cell eat
What is metabolism?
The chemical reactions that happen within a cell
What is catabolism?
Catabolic reactions within a cell, one form of mass becoming a new form of energy
Macromolecules becoming monomers, a breaking down reaction.
What is anabolism?
A building up reaction, molecules and energy becoming complex compounds.
What is energy?
Energy is the capacity to do work
Work = force × distance
What is potential energy?
Energy in position
Arrangement of atoms are a form of potential energy.
What is Delta?
Change
What is the first law of thermodynamics?
Energy cannot be created nor destroyed
What is the second law of thermodynamics?
Entropy is constantly increasing
What is the difference between an exergonic and an endergonic reaction?
Exergonic goes from high to low Endergonic reaction goes from low to high.
However, they usually happen one after another and some energy is always lost to heat.
What is free energy?
Available energy
ΔG
Activation energy (Ea)
The minimum amount of energy required to activate atoms or molecules to a condition in which they can undergo chemical transformation or physical transport.
ATP hydrolysis
Hydrolysis takes ATP brings it to a less energetic state which then becomes energy that’s released and can be coupled into driving endergonic reactions.
It is the universal currency of energy transport
Catalysis
A catalyst being used to increase the rate of a reaction without being consumed by the reaction.
Coupling reactions
Reactions that are joined together and are used to push the second reaction with the release of free energy in one reaction. Enzymes are catalysts that boost the reaction rate
Transition states
When molecules are heated into a frazzled transition state
They are as energized as they can be.
If they hit into each other, which they are more likely to do in the state, they will switch parts.
What are enzymes?
They speed up reactions exponentially while not being consumed by it.
They also attract associate and orient all substrates bringing them toward the transition state lowering the energy of activation barrier
They form brief bonds to the substrates in and release them to have the substrates exit.
They lower the energy activation barrier
Enzyme study sheet
Competitive inhibitor
Inhibits enzyme by interacting with the active, but doesn’t form stable bonds, is reversible.
Allosteric factor
Non-competitive factors because they don’t interact with the active site directly
Once new bonds form between an allosteric factor and a protein, the protein bonds shift which could change the shape of the active site slowing down the enzyme, making it a non-competitive inhibitor.
If permanent, it is an allosteric inhibitor
What does it mean to be a regulatable enzyme?
As seen in the isolucien cycle, regulatable enzymes are able to turn on and off depending on if their function is needed. (Like a machine in a factory)
Allosteric and cooperative regulate differently
Feedback loop
A self-recycling cycle of isolucine that keeps a steady level of enzyme in the system
What is the difference between oxidation and reduction reactions?
What is the mathematical formula for oxidation?
What is an example of NAD+ reducing to NADH?
Both hydrogens move over from the original compound exemplifying reduction.
Explain cellular respiration
There’s no oxygen necessary for this process to occur and started before oxygen was common.
However, oxygen makes way more ATP
The maximum extraction of energy comes from the mitochondria
It generates pyruvate in a cycle
What is the difference between substrate level versus oxidative phosphorylation?
Phosphorylation diagram
What happens in the investment phase of glycolysis?
Energy in the form of pyruvate is gathered together to be used in the next phase
What happens in the payoff phase of glycolysis?
Process continues to turn mass into energy. Glucose has been oxidized to form pyruvate.
Citric acid cycle diagram
What is the function of an electron transport chain in glycolysis?
Ultimately reducing oxygen to water
Only happens at the end of these processes in the inner membrane of the mitochondria
What is the process of oxidative phosphorylation?
A process of generating ATP using protons to acidify the intermembrane space by chemiosmosis.
What is chemiosmosis?
Chemical osmosis releasing a large energy payoff.
36 ATP
Post game wrap up sheet
What happens during fermentation?
The regeneration of NADH through creating more alcohol made from burning off the sugars constructed earlier on the reaction
How does the citric acid cycle effect oxygen starved muscles?
Citrix acid is released when available. ATP has been used up continuing the citric acid cycle, creating more energy more commonly known as a runner’s high.
Study sheet for levels of regulation
