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Biology 120 > The Cell/ Microscopes > Flashcards

The Cell/ Microscopes Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the role of water in biological systems?

A

The solvent of life, dissolving polar and charged molecules due to its polarity.

Water is essential for various biochemical reactions and processes in living organisms.

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2
Q

What are the four main types of macromolecules?

A
  • Carbohydrates
  • Lipids
  • Proteins
  • Nucleic Acids

Each type of macromolecule plays a critical role in biological functions.

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3
Q

Define carbohydrates.

A

Polymers of sugars (e.g., glucose).

Carbohydrates serve as energy sources and structural components.

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4
Q

What are lipids?

A

Not true polymers but hydrophobic molecules (e.g., fats, oils).

Lipids are important for energy storage and cellular membrane structure.

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5
Q

What defines proteins?

A

Polymers of amino acids; their structure is determined by the sequence and properties of amino acids.

Proteins perform a wide array of functions in biological systems.

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6
Q

What are nucleic acids?

A

Polymers of nucleotides (e.g., DNA, RNA).

Nucleic acids are essential for storing and transmitting genetic information.

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7
Q

What is polymerization?

A

The process of linking monomers together (dehydration synthesis).

This process is crucial for forming macromolecules.

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8
Q

What is depolymerization?

A

Breaking down polymers by adding water (hydrolysis).

This process is important for digestion and recycling of biomolecules.

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9
Q

What is the primary structure of proteins?

A

Linear sequence of amino acids.

The primary structure is critical for determining the protein’s overall structure and function.

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10
Q

What occurs during the secondary structure of proteins?

A

Formation of a-helices and B-sheets through hydrogen bonding.

Secondary structures contribute to the overall stability of proteins.

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11
Q

Define tertiary structure in proteins.

A

Folding of the polypeptide into a 3D structure determined by chemistry of amino acid sidechains.

The tertiary structure is essential for the protein’s functional capabilities.

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12
Q

What is quaternary structure in proteins?

A

Interaction of multiple proteins to form a complex.

Quaternary structure is important for the functionality of multi-subunit proteins.

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13
Q

What are the core principles of cell theory?

A
  • All living organisms are composed of one or more cells
  • The cell is the basic unit of structure and function in living organisms
  • All cells arise from the division of pre-existing cells

Cell theory is fundamental to understanding biology and the organization of life.

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14
Q

What is light microscopy?

A

Uses light to view cells and tissues.

Variants include brightfield, darkfield, and phase contrast microscopy.

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15
Q

What is brightfield microscopy?

A

Direct light transmission, often requires staining for better contrast.

This method is commonly used for observing fixed and stained specimens.

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16
Q

What is darkfield microscopy?

A

Illuminates the sample from the side, so that only light that is scattered by the specimen reaches the objective lens.

This technique enhances contrast in unstained samples.

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17
Q

What is phase contrast microscopy?

A

Enhances contrast by shifting in light phases and gives a pseudo-3D appearance to specimens.

This method is useful for viewing live cells and their internal structures.

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18
Q

What is Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM)?

A

Provides detailed internal views of thinly sliced samples.

TEM is capable of very high resolution, allowing for the visualization of cellular organelles.

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19
Q

What is Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)?

A

Produces detailed 3D images of surfaces.

SEM is used to study the surface morphology of samples.

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20
Q

What is resolution in microscopy?

A

The ability to distinguish two objects as separate entities.

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21
Q

What is magnification?

A

Increasing the apparent size of the specimen, as a lens does.

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22
Q

How does higher magnification affect resolution?

A

Higher magnification increases resolution.

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23
Q

What is contrast in microscopy?

A

Enhances the visibility of structures within the sample.

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24
Q

Does contrast increase resolution?

A

No, it does not increase resolution.

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25
Q

What are the types of microscopy?

A

Light Microscopy, Fluorescence Microscopy, Electron Microscopy (EM)

Light Microscopy includes techniques like brightfield, darkfield, phase-contrast, and Differential Interference Contrast (DIC).

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26
Q

What is Light Microscopy?

A

Techniques that enhance contrast by exploiting light-scattering properties

Includes methods such as brightfield, darkfield, phase-contrast, and DIC.

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27
Q

What does Fluorescence Microscopy utilize?

A

Fluorophores to visualize specific structures

It emits light when excited by photons, allowing observation of live specimens.

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28
Q

What is the primary advantage of Fluorescence Microscopy?

A

Visualization of specific cellular structures and ability to observe live cells

Applications also include imaging molecules like proteins and actin filaments.

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29
Q

What is Electron Microscopy (EM)?

A

A microscopy technique providing higher resolution due to shorter wavelength of electrons

Includes Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM).

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30
Q

What is Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM)?

A

Imaging thin sections of specimens to create 2D images with high detail

It provides detailed images of internal structures.

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31
Q

What is Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)?

A

Visualizes 3D surface contours of specimens, typically at lower magnifications

It provides detailed surface images of specimens.

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32
Q

Define fluorescence in the context of microscopy.

A

Occurs when an electron absorbs light, moves to a higher energy state, and emits light at a longer wavelength.

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33
Q

Which type of microscope provides higher resolution?

A

Electron microscopes

They require fixed (dead) specimens.

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34
Q

What are prokaryotes?

A

Typically small (1-3 um), unicellular organisms such as bacteria and archaea.

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35
Q

What distinguishes prokaryotes from eukaryotes?

A

Prokaryotes have a nucleoid and a single circular chromosome, while eukaryotes have a nucleus and linear chromosomes.

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36
Q

What are eukaryotes?

A

Larger cells (10-100 um) that include animals, plants, fungi, and protists.

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37
Q

List the fundamental features shared by prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

A
  • Plasma membrane
  • Cytoplasm
  • Ribosomes
  • Cytoskeleton
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38
Q

Fill in the blank: Eukaryotes can be _______ or multicellular.

A

unicellular

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39
Q

True or False: Prokaryotes have membrane-bound organelles.

A

False

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40
Q

What are the shared features of prokaryotes and eukaryotes?

A

Both cell types have essential components like DNA, ribosomes, a plasma membrane, and cytoplasm.

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41
Q

What is a key difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?

A

Prokaryotic cells lack a true nucleus and membrane-bound organelles, while eukaryotic cells have a nucleus and organelles.

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42
Q

What is the composition of the plasma membrane?

A

Composed of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins.

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43
Q

What is contained within the cytoplasm?

A

Cytosol and organelles where many metabolic reactions occur.

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44
Q

What are ribosomes and their function?

A

Complexes of proteins and RNA that synthesize proteins from mRNA.

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45
Q

What is the size difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic ribosomes?

A

Prokaryotic ribosomes are 70S while eukaryotic ribosomes are 80S.

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46
Q

What is the function of the cytoskeleton?

A

Maintaining cell shape, aiding in cell division, and transporting substances within the cell.

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47
Q

What is differential centrifugation?

A

A technique used to separate cell components based on size and density.

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48
Q

How does differential centrifugation work?

A

Involves spinning samples at different speeds to isolate organelles of interest.

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49
Q

What is Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP)?

A

A protein derived from jellyfish that emits green light when exposed to blue light.

50
Q

What is GFP used for in biology?

A

To visualize cellular structures, processes, and dynamics in living specimens.

51
Q

Fill in the blank: Prokaryotic ribosomes are _______ while eukaryotic ribosomes are 80S.

A

70S

52
Q

True or False: Eukaryotic cells have a true nucleus.

A

True

53
Q

What is the structure surrounding the nucleus called?

A

Nuclear envelope

The nuclear envelope is a double membrane that contains nuclear pores.

54
Q

What regulates the entry and exit of molecules in the nucleus?

A

Nuclear pore complex

The nuclear pore complex gates the movement through nuclear pores.

55
Q

What is chromatin composed of?

A

DNA and associated proteins

Chromatin is found within the nucleus.

56
Q

What is the function of the nucleolus?

A

Assembling ribosomal subunits

The nucleolus is a distinct region within the nucleus.

57
Q

What does nucleoplasm refer to?

A

The ‘cytoplasm’ within the nucleus

Nucleoplasm is the viscous fluid filling the nucleus.

58
Q

What are the primary functions of the nucleus?

A

Stores genetic material and coordinates activities such as growth, metabolism, and protein synthesis

The nucleus is essential for cellular operations.

59
Q

What is the Endomembrane System?

A

A network of membranes that compartmentalizes the cell and regulates the movement of molecules within cells.

60
Q

What is the Nuclear Envelope?

A

Continuous with the rough endoplasmic reticulum.

61
Q

What are the two types of Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)?

A
  • Rough ER
  • Smooth ER
62
Q

What is the function of Rough ER?

A

Involved in protein synthesis, folding, and modification.

63
Q

What is the function of Smooth ER?

A

Involved in lipid synthesis and detoxification.

64
Q

What is the role of the Golgi Apparatus?

A

Modifies proteins received from the ER, adds finishing touches like sugars, and sorts them for delivery.

65
Q

What do Vesicles do in the Endomembrane System?

A

Transport materials between different parts of the endomembrane system.

66
Q

What are Lysosomes?

A

Contain digestive enzymes to break down waste materials and cellular debris.

67
Q

What is the function of the Plasma Membrane?

A

Regulates what enters and exits the cell.

68
Q

What does Compartmentalization in cells allow for?

A

Different metabolic processes can occur in specific, controlled environments within the cell.

69
Q

What is Membrane Trafficking?

A

Movement of proteins and other molecules through vesicles between organelles.

70
Q

Fill in the blank: Proteins are synthesized in the ER, modified in the ________, and transported to their final destinations.

A

Golgi

71
Q

True or False: The Smooth ER is studded with ribosomes.

A

False

72
Q

What is exocytosis?

A

The process where vesicles move materials from the ER to the Golgi and then to the plasma membrane to be secreted from the cell.

73
Q

What is endocytosis?

A

The process where the plasma membrane engulfs external materials and brings them into the cell in vesicles.

74
Q

Give an example of exocytosis.

A

Neurotransmitter release.

75
Q

Give an example of endocytosis.

A

Viral entry into cells.

76
Q

Fill in the blank: _______ is the process where vesicles move materials from the ER to the Golgi.

A

[Exocytosis]

77
Q

Fill in the blank: _______ is the process where the plasma membrane engulfs external materials.

A

[Endocytosis]

78
Q

True or False: Exocytosis involves bringing materials into the cell.

A

False

79
Q

True or False: Endocytosis is a process that involves the secretion of materials from the cell.

A

False

80
Q

What is the function of the Nuclear Envelope?

A

Controls what enters and exits the nucleus

The nuclear envelope is a double membrane that surrounds the nucleus in eukaryotic cells.

81
Q

What are the two types of Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)?

A
  • Rough ER: Protein synthesis and folding
  • Smooth ER: Lipid synthesis and detoxification

The Rough ER is studded with ribosomes, while the Smooth ER lacks ribosomes.

82
Q

What is the role of the Golgi Apparatus?

A

Modifies proteins and sorts them into vesicles for transport

The Golgi apparatus is often referred to as the cell’s ‘post office’.

83
Q

What is the purpose of Vesicles in the Endomembrane System?

A

Transport materials between cellular compartments

Vesicles can carry proteins, lipids, and other molecules.

84
Q

What is the function of Lysosomes?

A

Digestive organelles that break down waste and engulfed materials

Lysosomes contain hydrolytic enzymes for digestion.

85
Q

What do Vacuoles do in plant and fungal cells?

A
  • Regulate turgor pressure
  • Store nutrients

Vacuoles can also store waste products.

86
Q

What is the function of the Plasma Membrane?

A

Regulates what enters and leaves the cell

The plasma membrane is selectively permeable.

87
Q

Fill in the blank: The __________ is involved in lipid synthesis and detoxification.

A

[Smooth ER]

The Smooth ER is crucial for the metabolism of lipids.

88
Q

True or False: The Rough ER is involved in lipid synthesis.

A

False

The Rough ER is primarily involved in protein synthesis.

89
Q

What are the two main types of semi-autonomous organelles?

A

Mitochondria and Chloroplasts

90
Q

What do mitochondria generate?

A

ATP

91
Q

What do chloroplasts generate?

A

Sugars

92
Q

What process do mitochondria participate in?

A

Respiration

93
Q

What process do chloroplasts perform?

A

Photosynthesis

94
Q

What unique features do both mitochondria and chloroplasts share?

A

They have their own DNA and ribosomes, replicate independently, and have double membranes

95
Q

Mitochondria and chloroplasts originated from _______.

A

[ancient prokaryotic symbionts]

96
Q

What are the components of the cytoskeleton?

A

Microtubules, Microfilaments, Intermediate Filaments

Each component has distinct roles in maintaining cell structure and function.

97
Q

What are microtubules composed of?

A

Polymers of tubulin

Microtubules maintain cell shape, aid in cell division, and serve as tracks for organelle movement.

98
Q

What are the functions of microfilaments?

A

Support organelle movement, cell movement, division, and structural support

Microfilaments are polymers of actin.

99
Q

What are intermediate filaments made of?

A

Polymers of intermediate filament proteins

Intermediate filaments are found in some eukaryotes like animals, but not in plants or fungi.

100
Q

What is one function of the cytoskeleton?

A

Maintain cell shape

The cytoskeleton provides mechanical support and facilitates cell adhesion.

101
Q

Fill in the blank: Microtubules aid in _______.

A

cell division

They also maintain cell shape and serve as tracks for organelle movement.

102
Q

True or False: Intermediate filaments are found in plants.

A

False

Intermediate filaments are found in some eukaryotes like animals but not in plants or fungi.

103
Q

What are the components of the cytoskeleton?

A

Intermediate Filaments, Microtubules, Microfilaments

Intermediate filaments provide structural support, microtubules maintain cell shape and facilitate transport, and microfilaments support cell shape and movement.

104
Q

What are intermediate filaments made of and what is their primary function?

A

Made of proteins like keratin and collagen; provide structural support and adhesion

Found in animal cells; plants and fungi lack intermediate filaments.

105
Q

What is the primary role of microtubules?

A

Maintain cell shape, enable intracellular transport, facilitate cell division

Composed of tubulin; motor proteins kinesins and dyneins move along microtubules.

106
Q

What are microfilaments composed of?

A

Actin

They support cell shape, movement, and division.

107
Q

How do myosin motor proteins interact with microfilaments?

A

They walk along microfilaments, playing a role in muscle contraction and cellular migration

Myosin is essential for movement in muscle cells.

108
Q

What functions do microtubules and microfilaments serve in relation to cell shape?

A

Help maintain cell shape

They contribute to cell polarity and structural integrity.

109
Q

What role do microtubules play in cell division?

A

Organize chromosomes during mitosis

They are crucial for the proper segregation of chromosomes.

110
Q

What aids in cytokinesis?

A

Microfilaments

They assist in the division of the cytoplasm during cell division.

111
Q

What is the function of motor proteins in the cytoskeleton?

A

Transport organelles and vesicles

They move along microtubules and microfilaments to facilitate intracellular transport.

112
Q

What structures facilitate cell movement or fluid movement over cell surfaces?

A

Cilia and flagella

Driven by microtubules and dynein.

113
Q

What is the primary composition of the Extracellular Matrix (ECM) in animals?

A

Primarily proteins (e.g., collagen) and glycoproteins

The ECM in animals provides structural support, cell adhesion, and cell shape.

114
Q

What do the ECM components consist of in plants, fungi, and bacteria?

A

Cell walls

Plant cell walls are primarily composed of cellulose, fungi use chitin, and bacteria have peptidoglycan.

115
Q

What is one of the main functions of the ECM?

A

Support

The ECM provides structural integrity to tissues and organs.

116
Q

What role does the ECM play in cell adhesion?

A

Holds cells together or attaches them to surfaces

This function is crucial for maintaining tissue structure.

117
Q

How does the ECM provide protection?

A

Acts as a barrier against physical damage and pathogens

The protective role is essential for maintaining tissue health.

118
Q

What is a function of the ECM in intercellular communication?

A

Facilitates selective transport through structures like plasmodesmata and gap junctions

Plasmodesmata are found in plants, while gap junctions are present in animals.

119
Q

Fill in the blank: The ECM in animals provides _______ support, cell adhesion, and cell shape.

A

[structural]

120
Q

True or False: The ECM is only found in animal cells.

A

False

ECM is also found in plants, fungi, and bacteria, taking different forms.

Biology 120 (24 decks)

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