TG51 related

Question 1

what does TG51 addendum include

Answer 1

Addendum includes MC calcs that better simulate the chambers
addendum includes kq for 30 vs 18 ion chambers
-includes guidance on FFF linacs

Question 2

why does quality have to be determined at 100 cm SSD, 10x10?

Answer 2

kq is calculated using Monte Carlo calculations which are done at 100 cm SSD, 10X10

Question 3

TG51 addendum Pion

Answer 3

Cinit: the component of the ion recombination correction
factor, Pion, to take account of initial
recombination.
Cgen: the coefficient of general (volume) recombination.
The product of Cgen and the dose per pulse, Dpp, is the component of the ion recombination
correction factor, Pion, to take account
of general recombination. Cinit and Cgen are defined
such that the ion-recombination correction
factor, Pion = 1 + Cinit + CgenDpp.

Note that Cinit is inversely proportional to the polarizing
voltage: e.g., Cinit = 0.002 at 300 V becomes Cinit
= 0.004 at 150 V. A higher polarizing voltage pushes the charges apart so that they can’t recombine initially?

Question 4

Pleak in addendum

Answer 4

correction factor to take account of leakage

If the leakage current is at or below the 0.1% level then it is
reasonable to set Pleak = 1.000 (no correction for leakage)

Question 5

Prp in addendum

Answer 5

the correction factor to take account of the
variation of the radial dose distribution that is
averaged by the detector

To determine Prp in the clinic, one calculates the average of
the radial dose profile over the dimensions of the active part
of the chamber

Question 6

issue with PP chambers and photon beams

Answer 6

chamber-to-chamber variations and long term stability

Question 7

what did addendum do regarding shifts?

Answer 7

-determined more accurate shifts for each ion chamber than 0.6 rcav, but noted that the effect on the dose is less than 0.1% for the chambers included

Question 8

what did addendum say regarding Pb foil

Answer 8

-Lead foil has led to confusion- instead use the interim measure in TG-51 to convert from %dd(10) to %dd(10)x -introduces error of no more than 0.2 %- take into account as increased uncertainty and also only use for FF beams (not FFF)

Question 9

what does addendum say about FFF beams?

Answer 9

the significant radial nonuniformity of the beam can have an effect on volume averaging within the chamber volume. Use a chamber with a short collection volume. Use lead foil for FFF beams, even if below 10 MV, to eliminate potential effect of accelerator-produced electron contamination

Question 10

why are microchambers not recommended for reference dosimetry?

Answer 10

The kQ values presented in Table I are based on calculations
for beams with flattening filters only.20, 28 In
a study of central-electrode effects,37 it was shown
that these same values apply for FFF beams within
0.1% or so for chambers with low-Z or aluminum
electrodes. However, for chambers with high-Z electrodes,
values of kQ can vary by more than 1% in
FFF beams for a given %dd(10)X. This is another reason
these microchambers are not recommended for
reference dosimetry.

Question 11

factors with 0.5% uncertainty

Answer 11

-SSD, depth, field size, charge, Ptp, kq, assignment of kq, reference chamber stability, Ppol, Pion, Ptp

Question 12

how much does kq vary?

Answer 12

0.95 TO 1

Question 13

explain Ptp correction

Answer 13

-ionization depends on mass of air which depends on air density- air density is proportional to P and inversely proportional to T

Question 14

what measurement do you use if there is a large polarity effect

Answer 14

true reading is taken to be the mean of the absolute values of readings taken at the two polarities

Question 15

where does Pfluence come from?

Answer 15

Ionization chamber introduces a low density hetero-geneity (gas cavity) into a medium and this causes a perturbation of the electron fluence

a low density cavity will scatter out fewer electrons than are scattered in. This results in an increase in the electron fluence toward the downstream end of the cavity in comparison with the fluence in a uniform medium at same dept

2 effects: in-scatter (increases fluence in cavity because electrons are not scattered out by the gas) and obliquity effect (decreases fluence in cavity because electrons go straight instead of scattering)

Pfl < 1 which means the in-scatter dominates, making the observed fluence too large. Note that the correction is very large at low-energies or for large diameter chambers and in this case it is best to use plane-parallel chambers with large guard rings.

Question 16

Factors with 0.1-0.3% uncertainty

Answer 16

humidity, leakage current, linac stability, Pelec

Question 17

Factors with ~ 1 % uncertainty

Answer 17

• Calibration factor, pre-irradiation history

Question 18

where does uncertainty in Mraw come from?

Answer 18

chamber, extension cable, and electrometer

Question 19

resolution of measuring devices for Ptp

Answer 19

0.1 degree and 0.1 kPa resolutions

Question 20

change in kq versus change in beam quality data

Answer 20

a 1% change in %dd(10)X leads to a
∼0.15% change in kQ

relative uncertainty
in determining %dd(10)X is at most 2%, which corresponds
to a relative uncertainty in kQ of about 0.25%.

Question 21

What are voltage-dependent polarity effects caused by?

Answer 21

• Distortion of electric field by potential difference between the guard and the collecting electrode. • Space charge distortion of electric field lines defining the gas sensitive volume. • Difference in mobility of positive and negative ions causing differences in space charge distribution around the central electrode.

Question 22

Compton current

Answer 22

causes an increased reading for positive chamber polarity and a decreased reading for negative chamber polarity.

In the dose buildup region of the electrode, these interactions cause a loss of electrons from the measuring electrode that is not fully compensated by the arrival of electrons from the upper layers of the phantom.

For depths beyond zmax, both positive and negative chamber polarities yield the same reading, because electronic equilibrium exists on the measuring electrode (as many electrons land on the measuring electrode as are ejected by photon interactions from the measuring electrode).

Question 23

why do we sometimes use build-up caps?

Answer 23

The wall thickness of an ion chamber must be greater than or equal to the range of secondary charged particles that are produced in the wall to maintain electronic equilibrium. In high energy beams, a build-up cap is often needed.

Question 24

explain spencer attix vs bragg gray

Answer 24

-chamber diameter is 4-6 mm
-The energy of an electron with a continuous slowing down approximation
(csda) range in air of 5 mm is ≈15 keV
-delta rays escaping would have to be perfectly balanced by those entering- this woudn’t be the case unless the gas is perfectly matched to the medium and the wall
-Spencer andAttix introduced a cutoff energy such that the incoming electrons
all have energies greater than and all energy losses less than are treated as
“local,” and are assumed to remain in the cavity or the medium where created.

• 2 terms:
• the 2nd term represents the final deposition of delta energy (phi * energy delta) as those electrons with energy less than delta deposit all their energy in the cavity. The first term represents electrons depositing energy as they slow down (but still cross the cavity). Ldelta is stopping power restricted to losses less than delta, representing that not ALL of the energy is deposited in the cavity.

Question 25

Explain why the water-air mass stopping-power ratio increases steadily with increasing depth in water in a megavoltage electron beam, whereas it is almost constant in a megavoltage photon beam.

Answer 25

-for electrons, they lose energy as they slow down and thus the stopping power increases (for water)- this effect is not as significant for air since polarization is not significant in air at moderate energies. Polarization is responsible for decreasing stopping power with increasing energy. The photons release electrons of around the same energy as the beam is attenuated through the depth thus the effect is not seen since electrons are of around the same energy .

Question 26

what do guard rings prevent aganst?

Answer 26

in-scattering effects This is why we don’t have Pfluence for parallel plate chambers. For low energy beams, Pfl is significant, thus why we have to use PP chambers

Question 27

the two types of detectors (based on size vs electron range)

Answer 27

1. Detectors that are large compared to the electron ranges, and in which, therefore, CPE is approximately established (photon radiation only) 2. Detectors that are small compared to the electron ranges and which therefore act as “sensers” of the electron fluence existing in the uniform medium (Bragg-Gray cavities)

Question 28

burlin cavity theory

Answer 28

don't fall into ether large detector (photon only) or small detector (electron stopping power only) Burlin uses a factor which is a weighted mean of the stopping power ratio and mass energy absorption coefficient ratio -factor includes chamber dimensions

Question 29

Predict and explain the behavior of in the build-up region of (i) a monoenergetic megavoltage photon beam (e.g., 10 MeV photons) and (ii) a megavoltage bremsstrahlung beam (e.g., 10 MV x rays). N.B.: you can ignore any “contamination” due to electrons generated in the air.

Answer 29

-I would expect the 10 MV photons to release around the same energy electrons as they are attenuated- thus stopping power ratio should stay stable. For the poly-energetic beam, lower energy photons will be attenuated first. These would produce lower energy electrons which would have higher stopping power ratios. Thus, the stopping power ratios would decrease as the beam hardens. Again, it is the polarization effect that significantly decreases stopping power for electrons in water for increasing energy, but not in air.

Question 30

Why is Pfluence not required for photon dose determinations made at or beyond dmax in a broad beam

Answer 30

because transient electron equilibrium exists The Fano theorem tells us that under conditions of charged particle equilibrium the electron spectrum is independent of the density in the medium. To the extent that the cavity gas is just low-density medium material, this theorem tells us that the electron fluence spectrum is not affected by the cavity except in the sense of the gradient correction, which in essence accounts for there being transient rather than complete charged particle equilibrium. Hence no fluence correction factor is needed in regions of transient CPE. -Pfluence is not needed in regions of transient CPE. Thus it is only needed in build-up region or near the boundaries of a photon beam or anywhere in an electron beam

Question 31

where do the standard corrections for Ptp break down?

Answer 31

for low energy radiation for some chambers with non air equivalent components. This breakdown occurs when the ranges of the electrons entering the chamber cavity are short compared to the dimensions of the cavity, and when the photon cross sections are different between the chamber wall and air. For low-energy brachytherapy sources in well-type ionization chambers, there is a greater deposition of the ionization products than expected. This can amount to as much as an 18% effect at higher altitudes

Question 32

Does Ppol depend on measuring depth?

Answer 32

yes The polarity effect depends on the energy and the angular distribution of the incident radiation and both the depth of the measurement and the field size. The effect can even reverse sign as a function of depth since forward ejected electrons near the surface create a region with a net loss of electrons, whereas a higher negative charge is accumulated at deeper depths where electrons stop in the medium. The charge deposition in the collecting electrode may either increase or decrease due to these effects based on the polarizing voltage of the chamber

Question 33

when do you calibrate the ion chamber?

Answer 33

it is necessary to have the chamber calibrated when first purchased, when repaired, when the redundant check suggests a need, or once every 2 years. When an ionization chamber or dosimeter is sent to a standards laboratory for calibration, stability check measurements (using a suitable check device) must be done by the user before and after the calibration. At least two independent checks should be performed prior to sending the chamber for calibration and the same checks repeated when the chamber is returned.

Question 34

Pgr for electrons

Answer 34

-Pgr for electrons just takes you to dref + 0.5 rcav. In reality, could just do the measurement there instead! For photons, the gradient effect is instead included in kq -Since Pgr can vary considerably in different clinical beams with the same R50, the user must measure in their own beam using simple methods described in TG-51. In contrast, the gradient effect in a photon beam of a given quality (i.e., a given value of %dd(10)x) is always the same (and can be calculated, see section 5.5) and thus can be included in the kQ value

Question 35

Do you use EPOM for clinical depth-dose data for photon and electron beams?

Answer 35

always

Question 36

How was R50 vs I50 equation obtained?

Answer 36

-R50 was calculated for many different beams by calculating depth-dose curves using realistic Monte Carlo models of the accelerators and by calculating the water to air stopping-power ratios for those same beams in order to generate depth ionization curves. These curves were used to extract I50.

Question 37

range of energies applicable for TG51

Answer 37

photons: 60Co to 50 MV electrons: 4 and 50 MeV

Question 38

standard TG51 equation

Answer 38

Dw,q = M N kq

Question 39

what does kq do

Answer 39

converts calibration factor from 60Co to beam quality q

Question 40

what is N

Answer 40

absorbed dose to water calibration factor for 60Co

Question 41

equation for M

Answer 41

M - Mraw Ptp Pion Ppol Pelec

Question 42

how is beam quality specified

Answer 42

%dd10x for photons -photon component of the percentage depth dose at 10 cm depth for a field size of 10x10 cm2 on the surface of a phantom at an SSD of 100 cm R50 for electrons -the depth at which the absorbed-dose falls to 50% of the maximum dose in a beam with field size>10310 cm2 on the surface of the phantom (>20X20 cm2 for R50> 8.5 cm at an SSD of 100 cm

Question 43

where is clinical reference dosimetry performed?

Answer 43

water phantom -plastic not allowed (ok for routine with factor, but water tank has to be done at least anually)

Question 44

reference depth for calibration

Answer 44

10 cm for photons | 0.6R50 - 0.1 cm for electrons

Question 45

conditions for clinical reference dosimetry

Answer 45

For photons,either SSD or SAD setup with 10x10 cm2 FS For electron beams clinical reference dosimetry is performed with a field size of >10x10 cm2(>20x20 cm2 for R50>8.5 cm at an SSD between 90 and 110 cm.

Question 46

what makes TG51 different than earlier protocols

Answer 46

still uses ion chambers as basis requires absorbed dose to water calibration factors - primary standads labs have moved from standards of exposure or air kerma to absorbed dose to water since clinical reference dosimetry is directlyrelated to this quantity, and also because primary standardsfor absorbed dose can be developed in accelerator beams,unlike exposure or air kerma standards - uncertainty for absorbed dose to water is less than 1 %- should take advantage of this improved accuracy

Question 47

how was kq determined in TG51?

Answer 47

spencer attix

Question 48

difference between %dd10, %dd10x and %dd10Pb

Answer 48

%dd10 includes electron contamination %dd10x is due to photons only %dd10Pb is the same as %dd10 except a 1 mm lead foil is placed below accelerator at 50 or 30 cm from the phantom surface

Question 49

define I50

Answer 49

the depth in an electron beam at which the gradient-corrected ionization curve falls to 50% of its maximum

Question 50

what does kq depend on

Answer 50

%dd10 or R50 and chamber | for 60Co kq is 1

Question 51

kq for electron beams

Answer 51

kq = kr50 Pgr kr50 = k'r50 kecal kecal converts calibration coefficient from 60Co to electron beam of quality ecal k'r50 converts from energy ecall to quality q kecal is fixed for a chamber model k'r50 is function of R50

Question 52

calibration factors - wrt recombination and polarity

Answer 52

assumes 100% charge collection efficiency | usually for a stated polarity and corrections are needed if large polarity effect in the beam

Question 53

what is pressure inside vented ion chamber?

Answer 53

same as local air pressure

Question 54

Pelec

Answer 54

1 id electrometer and ion chamber are calibrated as a unit converts electrometer reading to true coulombs also 1 for cross-calibrated PP chambers since it cancels out of the final equation

Question 55

Pgr

Answer 55

the gradient correction factor is the component ofkQin an electron beam that is dependent on the ionization gra-dient at thepoint of measurement The equivalentfactor in photon beams is accounted for withinkQsince it isthe same for all beams of a given photon beam quality

Question 56

point of measurement

Answer 56

for cylindrical ion chambers, at center of chamber | for PP, at front (upstream side) of air cavity at center of collecting region

Question 57

R50 for Qecal

Answer 57

R50 = 7.5 cm

Question 58

standard environmental conditions

Answer 58

T=22 C P = 101.33 kPa relative humidity between 20-80%

Question 59

Why are PP chambers not used for photon beams?

Answer 59

insufficient information about wall correction factorsin photon beams other than 60Co beams

Question 60

why use kecal?

Answer 60

- chamber to chamber variation of k'r50 is less than kr50 - directly measurable once primary standards for dose in electron beams are available - has natural role when cross-calibrating PP chambers against cylindrical chambers Although the protocol allows and provides data to use plane-parallel chambers,there is evidence that minor construction details significantly affect the response of these detectors in 60Co beams and this makes measurements or calculations of kecal more uncertain. Therefore, the preferred choice is to cross calibrate them in high-energy electron beams against calibrated cylindrical chambers as recommended by TG-39

Question 61

why use dref= 0.6R50-0.1 cm for electrons?

Answer 61

this is depth of dmax for electron beams < 10 MV and deeper for higher energy beams -using this depth, the protocol can make use of stopping-power ratios which account for the realistic nature of electron beams rather than assume they are mono-energetic, and also doesn't require stopping-power ratios tabulated as a function of depth and R50

Question 62

waterproofing sleeve (if not using waterproof chamber)

Answer 62

If the user’s waterproofing sleeve meets the above criteria, then the effect of the sleeves in both the calibration lab and the clinic are negligible, as are any differences between them

Question 63

dimensions of TG51 water tank

Answer 63

at least 30x30x30

Question 64

what does polarity vary with?

Answer 64

beam quality | cable position

Question 65

equation for Ppol

Answer 65

Ppol = absolute value of (M+raw - M-raw)/2Mraw Adequate time must be left after changing the sign of the voltage so that the ion chamber’s reading has reached equilibrium

Question 66

What if Ppol is > 0.3 % in photon beam of 6 MV or lower energy?

Answer 66

one must establish what the value of Ppol is in the calibration laboratory’s beam Since calibration laboratories traditionally report the calibration factor for one polarity, if there is a significant polarity correction in the calibration beam, the user must use Ndw60Co/Ppol60Co everywhere in protocol instead of Ndw60Co

Question 67

PTP correction

Answer 67

(273.2+T)/(273.2+22) X (101.33/P)

Question 68

issue with humidity

Answer 68

-TG51 assumes relative humidity is 20-80%- in this range, the error introduced by ignoring variations in relative humidity is +/-0.15% humid air may cause condensation inside ion chamber volume and this can affect chamber response, especially for nylon-wall chambers

Question 69

what changes dose/pulse (i.e. Pion)

Answer 69

pulse rate or dose rate

Question 70

what happens if Pion> 1.05

Answer 70

uncertainty in correction becomes unacceptably large another ion chamber with a smaller recombination factor should be used Voltages should not be increased above normal operating voltages just to reduce Pion since there are indications in the literature that the assumptions in the standard theories break down at higher voltages

Question 71

Pion for continuous beams

Answer 71

Pion = (1-(Vh/Vl)^2)/((Mhraw/Mlraw)-(Vh/Vl)^2)

Question 72

Pion for pulsed beams

Answer 72

Pion = (1-Vh/Vl)/((Mhraw/Mlraw)-(Vh/Vl))

Question 73

Is beam quality measured eveytime you do reference dosimetry?

Answer 73

yes

Question 74

why do we have to use SSD 10 cm for quality measurement but not for reference dosimetry?

Answer 74

This is because %dd( 10) and R50 are functions of SSD whereas absorbed-dose calibration factors are not (for 10x10 cm2 fields)

Question 75

where is EPOM

Answer 75

upstream of point of measurement due to predominantly forward direction of the secondary electrons (since the primary beam enters the chamber at various dis-tances upstream) shift is 0.6 rcav for photon beams and 0.5 rcav for electron beams

Question 76

issue with using shifted PDI curves

Answer 76

Using these measurements as depth-ionization curves ignores any variations in Pion and Ppol with depth and for electron beams it also ignores variations in the electron fluence correction factor. Since well-guarded plane-parallel chambers minimize these varia-tions with depth, they are preferred for measuring electron beam depth-ionization curves.

Question 77

Is PDI the PDD?

Answer 77

-for photon beams, the variation in stopping power ratio is negaligible past dmax so PDI = PDD for electrons, stopping power ratios change with depth and are needed to convert PDI to PDD Photons- electrons release3d through trajectory are of relatively same energy so stopping power ratio doesn't change much with depth Electrons- electron energy is decreasing with depth- changes in stopping power ratio are significant

Question 78

do you use EPOM for reference dosimetry?

Answer 78

no The gradient effects are included implicitly in the beam quality conversion factor kQf or photons and explicitly by the term PgrQ for elec-trons.

Question 79

why use the Pb foil?

Answer 79

reduces contaminant electrons at dmax for high E beams to a good level and calculations account for contaminant electrons introduced by the Pb foil -contaminant electrons at dmax would reduce %dd10 Use for E > 10 MV

Question 80

tolernace of thickness of 1 mm Pb foil

Answer 80

20% is acceptable

Question 81

how to get %dd10x from %dd10Pb?

Answer 81

equation in TG51 for foil at 50 cm and 30 cm distance from phantom surface

Question 82

when is foil used?

Answer 82

E> 10 MV | ONLY for beam quality measurements

Question 83

what if you don;t have a Pb foil and E > 10 MV?

Answer 83

TG51 has a formula that corrects for electron contamination for machines with 45 cm or more clearance between the jaws and the phantom surface