Test Questions Flashcards
Negative Feedback
The output reverses the input
Collagen
A fibre that provides strength in bones, ligaments and tendons
Elastin
Made from protein and is surrounded by glycoproteins. to add strength. Is is strong but stretchy.
Parathyroid Hormone is opposite to
Calcitonin
Rheuamtoid Arthritis Markers
DR 1 or DR 4
Bone develops from connective tissue sheets
Intramembraneous Ossification
Bones develops by replacing hyaline cartillage
Endochondral Ossification
Skeletal Muscle Growth
Hypertrophy
Autoimmune disease of the Neuromuscular Junction
Myasthenia Gravis
Equalisation of the middle ear
Eustachean Tube
The key inflammatory mediator of asthma
Leukotrienes
Symptoms of anaemia
Symptoms: Fatigue Shortness of breath on exertion Palpitations Irritability Fainting. Signs: Tachycardia Thin & thready pulse Pallor (skin/conjunctiva).
Thromboxane
Vasoconstrictor
Haemophilia A Clotting Factor
8
Haemophilia B Clotting Factor
9
Saliva Substances
- Water(99.5%).
- Mineral Salts (Na, K, Ca, Cl, Bicarbonate, P).
- Enzymes: salivary amylase (parotid), lysozymes (found in many body secretions, breaks down bacterial cell walls).
- Mucous.
- Immunoglobulins(IgA).
- Blood clotting factors.
- pH 6.35-6.85 (mildly acidic).
Family of Enzymes in Phase I Liver Detox
CYP450
Where do you find Peyer’s Patches
Ileum (submucosa)
Two nerves plexus in GIT
Myenteric
Submucosal
Hypothalamus Hormones
Thyroid releasing hormone (TRH)
Growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH) Corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH)
Prolactin releasing hormone (PRH)
Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH)
Growth hormon inhibiting hormone (GHIH)
Prolactin inhibiting hormone - Dopamine (PIH)
Anterior Pituitary Hormones
Growth hormone (hGH) Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) Luteinizing hormone (LH) Prolactin (PRL) Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) Melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH)
Posterior Pituitary Hormones
Oxytocin Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
Adrenal Gland: Medulla Hormones
- Adrenaline (epinephrine).
- Noradrenaline (norepinephrine).
- Dopamine.
Adrenal Gland: Cortex Hormones
Cortex(outer): produces 3 groups of steroid hormones:
• Glucocorticoids(primarily cortisol).
• Mineralocorticoids (primarily aldosterone).
• Sex hormones (primarily androgens).
Skeletal Muscles in the back
Trapezius
Erector Spinae
Quadratus Lumborum
Latissimus
Flexion
Angle decreases
Extenision
Angle increases
Cardiac Muscle vs Skeletal Muscle
Ony found in heart Autorhythmic Contains intercalcated discs Branching cells Involuntary Stays contracted longer single nucleus
Myosin vs Actin
Myosin is in the middle
Symptoms of Fibromyalgia
Widespread pain Depression Disrupted sleep Weakness Anxiety Tingling Numbness IBS Symptoms Headaches Debilitating fatigue Feeling of swollen joints, where none exist
Triggers of Fibromyalgia
Stress Trauma Sleep dysregulation Post-viral Toxic load High substance P Serotonin and Noradrenalin deficiencies
34 weeks gestations
Lack of lung surfactant, risk of aveolar collapse
Respiratory Centre of the Brain
Brainstem/ Medulla and Pons
Extrinsic (atopic) Asthma
Immune mediated/ IgE response to allergens
Symptoms of Asthma
Breathlessness Tight chest Wheezing Cough Sputum
Causes/Risks of sleep apnoea
Obesity Male Middle Aged Smoker Alcohol Sedatives Rhinitis Polyps
Vitamin K
Production of 4 clotting factors
Symptoms of Anaemia
Fatigue Breathlessness Irritability Palpitations Fainting
B12 vs Iron deficienet Anaemia
Neurological symptoms (tingling and numbness)
Jaundice as result of anaemia
Haemolytic Anaemia: Excessive haemolysis leads to excessive bilirubin formation
Anaemia vs Polycythemia
Pallor vs Redness
Symptoms of Angina Pectoris
Chest pain
Neck/shoulder/jaw pain
Dyspnooea
Liver Functions
Detoxification Cleansing blood Bile production Metabolism of glucose and fats Heat production Synthesis Storage
Symptoms of Appendicitis
Pain initally around umbilicus Pain then in lower right ilia Nausea Fever Vomitting Diarrhoea
Symptoms of Inflammatory Bowel Disease
Bloody stool Pain Rectal bleeding Fever Fatigue Nausea Vomitting Delayed puberty Weight loss Indigestion, "feeling blocked" Anaemia
Causes of IBD
Auto-immune Diet Genetics Antibiotics Infections Compromised Immunity
Coeliac Disease
Auto Immune
Intolerant to Gluten
Symptoms of Type I Diabetes
Polyuria Polydipsia Weight loss Weakness Fatigue Mental status changes Blurred Vision Slow healing Breathlessness Fruity smelling breath
Complications of Diabetes Mellitus
Heart disease Hypercholesterolaemia Hypertension Retinopathy Nephropathy Peripheral neuropathy
Causes of Splenomegaly
Haemolytic anaemia
Viral or bacterial infections (glandular fever)
Liver diseases
Blood and lymphatic malignancies
Types of cells in Connective Tissue
Fibroblasts
Adipocytes
Leukcocytes
Osteon
Structural unit of compact bone
DXA scan T-Score
+1 to -1 is normal
-1 to -2.5 ostepenia
Functions of muscular system
Posture Thermoregulation Movement Glycogen storage Movement of substances
Sleep Apnoea
Intermittant and repeated upper airway collapse during sleep
COPD
• COPD causes airflow limitation that is not fully reversible and is progressive. The airflow limitation is due to airway and functional lung tissue damage.
• Associated with a chronic inflammatory response of the lungs (usually, to inhaled toxins).
• COPD refers to a combination of two main pathologies (of varying proportions):
Emphysema -> walls of the alveoli damaged & destroyed, leading to reduced gas exchange.
Chronic bronchitisthe bronchial lining is constantly irritated & inflamed -> thick mucous.
Inhalers
Blue - bronchodilator
Brown - corticosteroid
Complications of COPD
Heart disease Pulmonary failure Lung cancer Pulmonary hypertension Recurrent infections
How many haemoglobin molecules are found in one Erythrocyte?
280 million
Megoblastic Anaemia
Large immature blood cells, assoc with folate and B12 deficiency
Stroke
A cerebrovascular incident involving inadequate blood to the brain
Right-sided heart failure
•Systemic oedema.
•Ascites.
•Portal hypertension (oesophageal varices, haemorrhoids).
Peripheral oedema
Left-sided heart failure
- Pulmonary oedema.
- Congestion bronchitis.
- Cardiac asthma (often most severe at night)
Stress on enteric nervous system
Increases SNS leads to reduced peristalsis and secretions
Microbes in Large Intestine
Immunity
Production of vitamins
Fermentation and digestion
Phagocytic cells in liver
Kuppfer Cells
Appearance of oral thrush
White plagues on oral mucosa
Cottage cheese look
Raw and red underneath
Red flag of oesphogeal cancer
Dysphagia
Risk factors/causes of Oesophageal Cancer
GORD - reflux Smoking Alcohol Barret's Oesophagus Low fruit and vegetables Increasing age
Complications of Appendicitis
Perforation
Peritonitis
The more biologically active form of Thyroid hormone
T3
Signs/Symptoms of Hypothyroidism
SYMPTOMS: Tiredness, Malaise Weight gain Cold intolerance Constipation Depression. Slow cognitive function Poor memory Low libido Deep voice Menstrual changes Muscle aches Arthralgia (joint pain) SIGNS: Goitre Dry, brittle skin & thin hair Loss of eyebrows. ‘Myxoedema’ (swelling) often around the eyes (deposition of polysaccharides which attract water).
Osteoarthritis
Gradual wear and tear of the articular cartilage
Cartilage wears away causing underlying bone exposure
Remodeling of underlying bone
Bone overgrows and osteophytes form
Smooth muscle
Filament attached to ‘dense bodies’
Myoglobin
Stores oxygen
Sarcoplasmic reticulum
Stores calcium
Structure of larynx
9 cartilage pieces, with vocal cords
Functions of the larynx
Sound production
Warm air
Air passage
Prevents food entering trachea
Fibrinogen
Blood clotting
Nutrients requred in erythrocyte formation
Folate
B12
Iron
Signs/Symptoms of Haemolytic Anaemia
Jaundice Fatigue Tachycardia Shortness of breath Palpitations Irritability Fainting Abdo/Shoulder pain (gall stones) Pain in digits
Observable signs of Iron deficiency anaemia
Spooning of nails
Angular Stomitis
Brittle hair
Observable signs of Thrombocytopenia
Bruising
Petechia
Vomitting blood
Bleeding gums
Polysaccharides
Starch
Glycogen
Cellulose
Dietary Lipids
Triglycerides
Cholesterol
Phospholipids
Causues of Gastro-oesophageal reflux
Obesity Hiatus hernia pregnancy Trigger foods Stress
Complications of GORD
Oesophageal cancer
Barret’s oesophagus
Ulcers
Coeliac Pathophysiology
Coeliac disease strips the microvilli & villi, causing atrophy.
Loss of brush border (loss of brush border enzymes (i.e. lactase) because of villi atrophy
Without Lactase we can’t break down Lactose
Coeliac symptoms
Fatigue Weightloss Diarrhoea Constipation Foul smelling stools Bloating Flatulence Loss of appetite Irritability Anxiety Depression
Medical investigations for Coeliac
Blood test
Endoscopy
Stool analysis
Biopsy
Functions of cortisol
Increase blood sugar Suppress immune system Proteolysis Lipolysis Weak absorption of sodium and water
Risk factors for Type 2 Diabetes
Obesity Genetics Poor diet No or little execise Pregnancy Low birth weight
Complications of Diabetes Mellitus
Heart disease Hypertension Retinopathy Kidney disease Neuropathy
Similarities between veins and lymphatic vessel
Valves
3 layers
Bring fluid towards the heart