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Biomedicine I > 1. Cytology, Basic Genetics & Histology > Flashcards

1. Cytology, Basic Genetics & Histology Flashcards

1
Q

Homeostasis

A

The condition of equilibrium (balance) in the body’s internal environment maintained by the body’s own regulatorty processes.

It is dynamic and ever-changing whilst remaining within certain narrow limits to ensure optimal functioning of all life processes.

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2
Q

Examples of Homeostasis

A
  1. Core temperature (36.5 - 37.5 C)
  2. Water and electrolyte concentrations
  3. pH
  4. Blood glucose levels
  5. Blood and tissue O2/CO2 levels
  6. Blood pressure
  7. Flow of Life Force
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3
Q

Negative Feedback

A

The output reverses the input.

The effector decreases the effect of the original stimulus.

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4
Q

Positive Feedback

A

Strenghtens change in one of the body’s controlled conditions (amplifier)

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5
Q

Examples of Negative Feedback

A

Body temperature

Blood glucose

Blood pressure

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6
Q

Examples of Positive Feedback

A

Childbirth

Milk Production

Enzyme reactions

Immunity

Blood Clotting

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7
Q

Body Cavities

A

Cranial

Thoracic

Abdominal

Pelvic

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8
Q

Oxidative Damage

A

Occurs due to toxins, stress, smoking, diets rich in refined sugar & processed foods

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9
Q

Free Radicals

A

Cause oxidative damage.

Highly reactive species, looking for a spare electron and will rob others to get it.

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10
Q

Anti-Oxidant

A

Neutralises free radicals.

Examples include:

Vitamin C

Vitamin E

Beta-Carotene

Lycopene

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11
Q

Prokaryotic Cells

A

Contain no nucleus and no membrane bound internal structures

Encased by a cell wall and have a tail (flagella)

eg Bacteria

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12
Q

Eukaryotic Cells

A

Contain a nucleus and membrane bound organelles

No cell wall in humans, only plants and fungi

eg. Human cells, plant and fungi

All eurkaryotic cells have a nucleus except for red blood cells

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13
Q

Cytosol

A

Basic watery fluid inside a cell

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14
Q

Organelles

A

Small specialised structures within the cell

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15
Q

Cytoplasm

A

Cell contents excluding the nucleus (includes cytosol and organelles)

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16
Q

Cell Membrane

A
  • controls exchange between cell and environment / selectively permeable; R water
  • receptors for, cell recognition / attachment;
  • fluid to allow, endocytosis / exocytosis;
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17
Q

Cell Membrane

A

A - Glycoprotein - Interegal Protein: carrier molecule

B - Phospholipid Bilayer - waterproofing

C - Carbohydrate - receptor

D - Cholesterol: Provide structure, regulate fluidity

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18
Q
A

J - Channel protein

K - Receptor, Recognition site, helps to adhere one to the other

M - Cholresterol - Adds structure

L - Phospholipid bilayer - waterproof barrier

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19
Q
A

A- Lysosome

B - Centriole

C - Nucleus

D - Nuclear Envelope

E - Nucleolus

F - DNA

G - Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

H - Rough ER with Ribosomes

I - Plasma Membrane

J - Cytoplasm (cytosol)

K - Mitochondrion

L - Gogli Apparatus

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20
Q

Nucleus / DNA

A
  • controls, activities of cell / transcription / named activity / cell division;
  • contains genetic information that can be transmitted to next generation;
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21
Q

Nucleolus

A

Produces, ribosomes / rRNA

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22
Q

Chromosomes

A

Chromosomes are threadlike structures of nucleaic acids and protein

Sections of DNA are called genes

Each cell contains 46 chromosomes or 23 pairs

Somatic Cells - normal cells

Gametes - sex cells

contains genetic information that can be transmitted to next generation;

    • deoxyribose (sugar)
  • phosphate (group);
  • nitrogenous / purine or pyrimidine) base
    • Adenine
    • Guanine
    • Cytosine
    • Thymine
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23
Q

Somatic Cells

A

Normal cells

Diploid nucleus with 46 chromosomes

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24
Q

Gametes

A

Sex Cells

All gametes have a haploid nucleus with 23 chromosomes

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25
Q

Histones

A

Proteins around which DNA’s double helix coils around

26
Q

Chromatin

A

Compact, string-like fibres of DNA

27
Q

Cytoskeleton

A

A network of protein filaments (microtubules and microfilaments) that extend through the cytosol.

  1. Help to generate movement
  2. Physical support and shape
  3. Assist in cell division
28
Q

Mitochondria

A
  • formation ATP / suitable energy ref.;
  • aerobic respiration;

Muscle cells are through to contain the most mitochondria.

29
Q

Ribosomes

A

Site of protein synthesis

Can either be mobile in the cytoplasm or bound to the Rough ER

Free ribosomes make proteins for inside the cell whereas RER ribosomes make them for outside

30
Q

Rough ER

A

•synthesizes and transports proteins

31
Q

Protein Production in Rough ER

A
  • Proteins are pinched off vesicles in the Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum/RER
  • Proteins are transported in vesicles to the Golgi Apparatus
  • Proteins are modified in the Golgi Apparatus/Have carbohydrates added to the proteins
  • Modified proteins are placed into vesicles
  • Modified proteins are released from the plasma membrane/Exocytosis
32
Q

Smooth ER

A

Makes / transports, lipids / steroids / hormones;

  • In the liver, enzymes of smooth ER detoxify alcohol and drugs
  • In muscle, it releases calciuim for muscle contraction
33
Q

Golgi Apparatus

A

The Post Office

Modifies, sorts, packages and transports proteiens from the Rough ER.

use in secretion

lysosome formation

34
Q

Lysosome

A
  • hydrolytic / digestive, enzymes
  • breakdown, organelles / cell / ingested material
35
Q

Mitosis

A

Somatic cells reproduce via mitosis to create two identical cells. Used for growth and repair.

  • epidermis - 40 days
  • Stomach/intestines mucosa - 5 days
  • Liver - 5 months
  • Taste buds - 10 days
36
Q

DNA Replication

A
  • The double helix untwists
  • Is then unzipped by the breaking of the H bonds via DNA helicase
  • Free nucleotides are attracted to their complementary bases
  • C to G (3 H Bonds) and A to T (2 H bonds)
  • Hydrogen bonds reform
  • Sugar phosphate back bone forms using covalent/phosphodiester bonds using DNA Polymerase
37
Q

Meiosis

A

The process through which gametes are formed

Produces 4 Haploid cells through 2 divisions

4 cells produced are non-identical

38
Q

Prophase

A

Prophase is the first phase of mitosis. During prophase, the complex of DNA and proteins contained in the nucleus, known as chromatin, condenses. The chromatin coils and becomes increasingly compact, resulting in the formation of visible chromosomes. Chromosomes are made of a single piece of DNA that is highly organized. The replicated chromosomes have an X shape and are called sister chromatids. The sister chromatids are pairs of identical copies of DNA joined at a point called the centromere. Then, a structure called the mitotic spindle begins to form. The mitotic spindle is made of long proteins called microtubules that begin forming at opposite ends of the cell. The spindle will be responsible for separating the sister chromatids into two cells.

39
Q

Metaphase

A

The chromosomes align on the equator of the spindle

40
Q

Anaphase

A

The chromatids separate and move to the poles

41
Q

Telophase

A

The nuclear membrane reforms and cytokinesis follows.

42
Q

Mutation

A

A change in the genetic information in the DNA sequence.

Adenine

Thymine

Guanine

Cytosine

Mutations in gametes are passed on, mutations in somatic cells cannot be inherited.

43
Q

Protein Synthesis

A

Cells use the DNA code as a template for the systhesis of specific proteins.

  1. Transcription: A copy of one gene is made into mRNA, this travels out of the nucleus to the ribsome
  2. Translation: The ribosome (tRNA) reads the code and produces a chain of amino acids to form the required protein.
44
Q

Passive Transport

A

The movement of substance from an area of high to low concentration (down the concentration gradient), requires no energy.

  1. Diffusion - the movement of small substances from a high to low concentration. eg gases
  2. Osmosis - the passive movement of water
  3. Facilitated diffussion - the movement of larger substances from high to low with the aid of a transmembrance protein. eg glucose and charged molecules
45
Q

Active Transport

A

The movement of substances from an area of low to high concentration, requires energy (ATP)

  1. Pumps (e.g. sodium-potassium pump) - use protein pumps in the cell membrane to allow specific molecules up the concentration gradient. Important for nerves
  2. Endocytosis - ‘engulfing’ of particles into the cell through cell membrane extensions. Phago (eating) and Pino (drinking) cytosis
  3. Exocytosis - removal of waste from the cell. Bulk transport
46
Q

Glycolysis (Formation of Pyruvate)

A
  • Glucose is phosphorylated/has a phosphate added
  • Using a molecules of ATP
  • Creates hexose phosphate
  • Second ATP molecule is attached to create hexose bisphosphate
  • Hexose bisphosphate breaks down to produce two molecules of triose phosphate
  • Triose phosphates are phosphorylated
  • Using free Pi ions
  • Hydrogen is removed from each triose phosphate/triose phosphate is dehydrogenated
  • The H+ ions are transferred to carrier molecules NAD and are used later
  • This yields 2 molecules of pyruvate
47
Q

The Krebs Cycle

A
  • Acetyl co-enzyme A combines with oxaloacetate to from citrate
  • Citrate is decarboxylated and dehyrogenated to yield carbon dioxide (waste gas) and hydrogen (combines with carriers NAD and FAD)
  • 5 carbon molecules is created which is decarboxylated and dehydrogenated c
  • Reduced FAD and 4 carbon molecule is created
  • This is converted to another 4 carbon molecule and ATP is released
  • This 4 carbon molecule is dehydrogenated
  • Another 4 carbon molecule is created and redFAD
  • Dehyrogenated occurs, reduced NAD is created
  • Oxaloacetate is regenerated
48
Q

Oxidative Phosphorylation and Chemiosis

(The Electron Transport Chain)

A
  • Hydrogens are split from FAD (at complex II) and NAD (at complex I)
  • Hydrogen is broken into H+ and an electron.
  • The electron is transferred along the electron transport chain
  • H+ ions are pumped across Complexes I, III and IV into the intermembranal space
  • H+ ions diffuse through ATP synthase from the intermembranal space into the mitochondrial matrix
  • ATP is created
49
Q

The Link Reaction

A
  • Pyruvate has carbon dioxide removed/decarboxylated
  • It also has hydrogen removed- dehydrogenated
  • It combines with Co-Enzyme A to give acetyl co-enzyme A
50
Q

Histology

A

Four different types of tissue

  1. Epithelial tissue
  2. Connective tissue
  3. Muscular tissue
  4. Nervous tissue
51
Q

Epithelial Tissue

A

Covering or lining tissue

  • Closely packed cells arranged in continuous sheets
  • Divided into covering and glandular epithelium
  • Provides a selective barrier; for protection and the secretion of substances

Blood vessels, the heart, lungs, urinary tract, GI tract, skin, eyes and reproductive organs

52
Q

Epithelial Tissue - Glands

A

A gland is a single cell or group of epithelial cells that produce secretions. Two types:

  1. Exocrine glands: Secrete products into ducts.
    1. Secretions include saliva, milk, sebum, sweat, enzymes
  2. Endocrine glands: Secrete products into interstitial fluid and then diffuse into blood
    1. These glands produce hormones
53
Q

Connective Tissue

A

Connective tissue is the most diverse and abundant in the body.

  • Most connective tissues provide a supportive function (bone and cartilage) whilst others are fluid (blood)

Two main elements

  1. Extracellular matrix
    1. Ground substance - water, hyalauronic acid and chondroitin sulphate. Substance between cells that determine the functionality of the tissue
    2. Fibres - collagen and elastin. Produced by fibroblasts
  2. Cells (widely spaced)
    1. Widely spaced
    2. Include cells that synthesise the protein fibres, WBCs and fat cells
54
Q

Collagen

A
  • Made from the protein collagen
  • Strong fibres
  • Especially in bone, ligaments, and tendons
  • Occur in parallel bundles for extra strength
55
Q

Elastic Fibres

A
  • Made from the protein elastin, surrounded by glycoprotein to add strength
  • Smaller diameter
  • Strong but stretchy. Allow tissue to return to original shape
  • In skin, blood vessel walls and lung tissue
56
Q

Connective Tissue: Cells

A
  1. Fibroblasts - Large and most numerous cells. Secrete protein fibres to make collagen and elastic fibres. Active in repair and healing
  2. Adipocytes - Store triglycerides (fat)
  3. White Blood Cells
    1. Macrophages - Engulf foreign bodies
    2. Lymphocytes - Produce antibodies
    3. Mast Cells - Release inflammatory chemicals (histamine, heparin)
57
Q

Connective Tissue Functions

A
  1. Structural framework (bone, cartilage).
  2. Transport nutrients and wastes (blood).
  3. Protection for vital organs (bone, cartilage, adipose).
  4. Support and interconnection (tendons, ligaments etc.).
  5. Insulate (adipose tissue).
  6. Store energy.
  7. Produce blood and lymphatic cells (adipose tissue, bone marrow)
  8. Defense and repair(blood, lymph)
58
Q

Membranes

A

Membranes combine epithelial and connective tissue

  1. Cutaneous membrane (skin)
  2. Mucous membrane
  3. Serous membrane
  4. Synovial membrane
59
Q

Mucous Membrane

A

Mucous membranes line hollow organs that open to a surface of the body

  • Digestive
  • Respiratory
  • Genitourinary

Epithelial layer contains goblet cells which produce and secrete mucous

  1. Protect
  2. Trap foreign particles
60
Q

Serous Membrane

A

Line body cavities that do not open to the exterior

Double layered containing:

  1. Visceral (inner) layer - surrounds organs
  2. Parietal (outer) layer - lines a cavity

Between the visceral and parietal layers lie ‘serous fluid,’ enables the organ to glide freely without friction

61
Q

3 Serous Membranes

A
  1. Pericardium - surrounding the heart
  2. Pleura - lining the thoracic cavity surrounding the lungs
  3. Peritoneum - lining the abdominal cavity and surrounding abdominal organs (and some pelvic organs)
62
Q

Synovial Membranes

A

Lines cavities of free moveable joints

Biomedicine I (18 decks)

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