Test 3 Flashcards
Memory
the retention and retrieval of information or experience over time
what is the capacity of the conscious mind?
120 bits per second
divided attention
concentrating on one or more activities at one time
sustained attention
maintain attention to selected stimulus for long period of time
shallow level of processing
physical and perceptual features are analyzed
intermediate level of processing
stimulus is recognised and labelled
deep level of processing
semantic, meaningful, symbolic characteristics are used
elaboration
the formation of different connections around stimulus
self reference
relating material to your own experience
where does elaboration happen?
left frontal lobe
dual code hypothesis
memory for pictures is better than memory for words
storage
how information is retained over time and how it is represented in memory
atkinson-shiffrin theory
memory storage involves separate systems
sensory memory
time frames of seconds
short term
time frames up to 30 seconds
long term
time frames up to a lifetime
echoic memory
memorising the things you hear
icolic memory
memorising things you see
memory span
number of digits an individual report back in order after one presentation of them
how to improve short term memory?
chunking and rehearsal
chunking
grouping information together to be remembered as units
rehearsal
conscious repetition of information
what is working memory?
combination of components that allow us to hold information temporarily as we perform
phonological loop
briefly stores speech based information about sounds of language
visuo-spacial sketchpad
stores visual or spatial information
central executive
integrates information from phonological loop, visuo-spacial sketchpad and long term memory
what part of brain is active during rehearsal?
left hemisphere
long term memory
relatively permanent type that stores large amounts of information for long time
explicit memory
remembering who, what, where, when and why
implicit memory
remembering how
permastore content
retained for a very long time
episodic memory
retention of information about where, when and what
semantic memory
pertains to person’s knowledge about world
what is implicit memory?
non-consciously remembering skills and sensory perceptions
procedural memory
involves memory for skills
classical conditioning
learning associations between stimuli
priming
activation of information already stored in memory to help remember new information
schemas
pre-existing mental concept or framework to organize and interpret information
script
schema for an event
what are connectionist networks
theory that memory is stored throughout brain in connections among neurons
where are memories stored
cells over large areas of cerebral cortex
what brain structures affect memory functions
frontal lobes, amygdala, temporal lobe, hippocampus, cerebellum
what is memory retrieval
when memory that was held in storage is pulled out
what is the serial position effect?
tendency to recall items at beginning and end rather than middle
primacy effect
better recall of first items
regency effect
better recall of end items
recall
task where individual has to retrieve previously learned information (essay tests)
recognition
task where individual has to identify learned items (multiple choice)
what is encoding specificity
information present at the time of encoding or learning tends to be effective as a retrieval cue
context-dependent memory
people recall information in same context as they learned it
false memories
when people remember an event that never happened
reminiscence bump
adults remember more from the second and third decades of their life
flashbulb memory
memory of emotionally significant events with more accuracy
what is encoding failure?
when information was never processed into long term memory
what is retrieval failure?
not being able to bring information out of storage
interference
people forget because other information gets in the way
proactive interference
material learned before disrupts recall of material learned later
retroactive interference
material learned later disrupts retrieval of information learned earlier
decay theory
when we learn something new a neurochemical memory trace forms but overtime it disintegrates
tip of the tongue phenomenon
we are confident we know something but struggle to retrieve it
what is prospective memory?
remembering to do something in the future
time based prospective memory
our intention to engage in a behaviour after a certain amount of time has passed
event based prospective memory
we engage in intended behaviour after an event or cue elicits it
what is failure of prospective memory
absent mindedness
what is amnesia
loss of memory
anterograde amnesia
affects retention of new information and events
retrograde amnesia
memory loss for segments of past events
what is cognition?
the ways information is processed and manipulated in remembering, thinking, problem solving and knowing
cognitive psychology
explains observable behaviour by investigating mental processes
what is thinking?
manipulating information mentally by forming concepts, solving problems, making decisions and reflecting
what are concepts
mental categories used to group objects, events and characteristics
prototype model
people will compare new items with typical items to look for a resemblance
what is problem solving?
finding an appropriate way to attain a goal
how do you develop good problem solving strategies?
subgoals, algorithms, heuristics
subgoals
intermediate goals or problems we give ourselves to get closer to final goal
algorithms
strategies that lead to the solution of a problem
heuristics
shortcut strategies that suggest a solution
how do you evaluate solutions?
have a clear criteria in your head
fixation
using a prior strategy and failing to look at a new problem with a new perspective
functional fixedness
individuals fail to solve problems since they are focused on an objects usual function
reasoning
transforming information to reach a conclusion
inductive reasoning
going from specific observations to generalisations
deductive
forming a general principle known to be true from specific instance
what is decision making?
evaluating alternatives and choosing among them
what are two systems of reasoning and decision making
automatic and controlled
loss aversion
tendency to weight potential losses more heavily than potential gains
confirmation bias
tendency to search for and use information which supports your own ideas
base rate neglect
tendency to ignore factual information in favour of very specific but vivid information
hindsight bias
convincing yourself you knew something after viewing it even though you didn’t
representativeness heuristic
making judgements about people based on their physical appearance and stereotypes
availability heuristic
predicting possible outcome based on prior knowledge of how things turn out
endorsement effect
we assign greater value to things that we own
sunk cost fallacy
people are unlikely to give up on a venture due to past involvement
critical thinking
thinking reflectively and productively and evaluating evidence
what two habits improve critical thinking?
mindfulness and open mindedness
mindfulness
being alert and mentally present during one’s everyday activities
open mindedness
being receptive to other ways of looking at things
what is creative thinking?
uncovering the best solution to a problem
creativity
being able to think about something in unusual ways
divergent thinking
produces many solutions to same problem
convergent thinking
produced the single best solution to a problem
what is intelligence
an all purpose ability to do well on cognitive tasks, solve problems and learn from experience
validity
the extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure
reliability
the extent to which a test yields a consistent measure of performance
standardisation
involves developing uniform procedures for administering and scoring a test
mental age
individuals level of mental development relative to that of others
triarchic theory of intelligence
intelligence comes in three forms (analytical, creative and practical)
what does gardner suggest
there are nine types of intelligence
what is language?
form of communication based on system of symbols
phonology
languages sound system
morphology
languages rules for word formation
syntax
languages rules for combining words to form acceptable phrases and sentences
semantics
meaning of words and sentences in a particular language
pragmatics
ability of language to communicate more than what is said
systems required for language
brain, nervous system, vocal apparatus
what was required for survival in humans
communication
what is broca’s area for? (at front)
speech production
what is wernicke’s area for? (at back)
language comprehension
how does environment influence language
parents happy reactions will reinforce that it is good to say those things
when do babies start to babble?
4-6 months
when do babies specialise in speech sounds?
6 months
when are first words?
10-13 months
when are two word statements said and gestures understood?
18-24 months
cognitive appraisal
refers to persons interpretation of a situation
coping
a kind of problem solving to reduce stress
benefit finding
looking at a stressful event in a particular way
development
pattern of continuity and change in human capabilities throughout life
physical changes
occur in individuals biological nature
cognitive changes
take place in thought, intelligence and language
socioemotional changes
changes in persons relationship with other people
cross-sectional study
people of different ages are assessed at one time and differences are noted
cohort effects
differences between individuals which comes from historical and social time period
longitudinal study
assessing the same participants multiple times over a period of time
teratogen
any agent which causes a birth defect
what reflexes are present at birth
sucking an swallowing, holding breath in water
pruning
eliminating unused connections
assimilation
when individuals incorporate new information into existing knowledge
accommodation
when individuals adjust their schemas to new information
what do young infants know?
object permanence and simple sense of physics
sociocultural cognitive theory?
children build cognitive abilities through their social interactions
temperament
an individual’s behavioural style and characteristic way of responding
three types of temperament
easy child, difficult child, slow to warm up child
infant attachment
close emotional bond between infant and caregiver
secure attachment
infants use the caregiver as a secure base to explore environment
avoidant attachment
will ignore caregiver upon return
anxious/ambivalent attachment
is distressed when caregiver leaves and ignored them when they come back
authoritarian
strict punitive style if parenting
authoritative
encourages child to be independent with limits
neglectful
lack of parent involvement
permissive
placing few limits on child’s behaviour
stages of moral development
preconventional, conventional, post conventional
preconventional
moral reasoning is based on consequences of behaviour as rewards and punishments
conventional
they abide by standards presented from parents or society
postconventional
they develop their own moral code
pro social behaviour
behaviour that is intended to benefit other people
what is cellular clock theory
states that cells divide a maximum of 100 times
what is free radical theory
frailty associated with old age is caused from production of unstable oxygen molecules
what is hormonal stress theory?
aging of the hormonal system lowers resistance to stress
socioemotional selectivity theory
older adults choose relationships based on who makes them happy
