Test 3 Flashcards
1
Q
Memory
A
the retention and retrieval of information or experience over time
2
Q
what is the capacity of the conscious mind?
A
120 bits per second
3
Q
divided attention
A
concentrating on one or more activities at one time
4
Q
sustained attention
A
maintain attention to selected stimulus for long period of time
5
Q
shallow level of processing
A
physical and perceptual features are analyzed
6
Q
intermediate level of processing
A
stimulus is recognised and labelled
7
Q
deep level of processing
A
semantic, meaningful, symbolic characteristics are used
8
Q
elaboration
A
the formation of different connections around stimulus
9
Q
self reference
A
relating material to your own experience
10
Q
where does elaboration happen?
A
left frontal lobe
11
Q
dual code hypothesis
A
memory for pictures is better than memory for words
12
Q
storage
A
how information is retained over time and how it is represented in memory
13
Q
atkinson-shiffrin theory
A
memory storage involves separate systems
14
Q
sensory memory
A
time frames of seconds
15
Q
short term
A
time frames up to 30 seconds
16
Q
long term
A
time frames up to a lifetime
17
Q
echoic memory
A
memorising the things you hear
18
Q
icolic memory
A
memorising things you see
19
Q
memory span
A
number of digits an individual report back in order after one presentation of them
20
Q
how to improve short term memory?
A
chunking and rehearsal
21
Q
chunking
A
grouping information together to be remembered as units
22
Q
rehearsal
A
conscious repetition of information
23
Q
what is working memory?
A
combination of components that allow us to hold information temporarily as we perform
24
Q
phonological loop
A
briefly stores speech based information about sounds of language
25
visuo-spacial sketchpad
stores visual or spatial information
26
central executive
integrates information from phonological loop, visuo-spacial sketchpad and long term memory
27
what part of brain is active during rehearsal?
left hemisphere
28
long term memory
relatively permanent type that stores large amounts of information for long time
29
explicit memory
remembering who, what, where, when and why
30
implicit memory
remembering how
31
permastore content
retained for a very long time
32
episodic memory
retention of information about where, when and what
33
semantic memory
pertains to person’s knowledge about world
34
what is implicit memory?
non-consciously remembering skills and sensory perceptions
35
procedural memory
involves memory for skills
36
classical conditioning
learning associations between stimuli
37
priming
activation of information already stored in memory to help remember new information
38
schemas
pre-existing mental concept or framework to organize and interpret information
39
script
schema for an event
40
what are connectionist networks
theory that memory is stored throughout brain in connections among neurons
41
where are memories stored
cells over large areas of cerebral cortex
42
what brain structures affect memory functions
frontal lobes, amygdala, temporal lobe, hippocampus, cerebellum
43
what is memory retrieval
when memory that was held in storage is pulled out
44
what is the serial position effect?
tendency to recall items at beginning and end rather than middle
45
primacy effect
better recall of first items
46
regency effect
better recall of end items
47
recall
task where individual has to retrieve previously learned information (essay tests)
48
recognition
task where individual has to identify learned items (multiple choice)
49
what is encoding specificity
information present at the time of encoding or learning tends to be effective as a retrieval cue
50
context-dependent memory
people recall information in same context as they learned it
51
false memories
when people remember an event that never happened
52
reminiscence bump
adults remember more from the second and third decades of their life
53
flashbulb memory
memory of emotionally significant events with more accuracy
54
what is encoding failure?
when information was never processed into long term memory
55
what is retrieval failure?
not being able to bring information out of storage
56
interference
people forget because other information gets in the way
57
proactive interference
material learned before disrupts recall of material learned later
58
retroactive interference
material learned later disrupts retrieval of information learned earlier
59
decay theory
when we learn something new a neurochemical memory trace forms but overtime it disintegrates
60
tip of the tongue phenomenon
we are confident we know something but struggle to retrieve it
61
what is prospective memory?
remembering to do something in the future
62
time based prospective memory
our intention to engage in a behaviour after a certain amount of time has passed
63
event based prospective memory
we engage in intended behaviour after an event or cue elicits it
64
what is failure of prospective memory
absent mindedness
65
what is amnesia
loss of memory
66
anterograde amnesia
affects retention of new information and events
67
retrograde amnesia
memory loss for segments of past events
68
what is cognition?
the ways information is processed and manipulated in remembering, thinking, problem solving and knowing
69
cognitive psychology
explains observable behaviour by investigating mental processes
70
what is thinking?
manipulating information mentally by forming concepts, solving problems, making decisions and reflecting
71
what are concepts
mental categories used to group objects, events and characteristics
72
prototype model
people will compare new items with typical items to look for a resemblance
73
what is problem solving?
finding an appropriate way to attain a goal
74
how do you develop good problem solving strategies?
subgoals, algorithms, heuristics
75
subgoals
intermediate goals or problems we give ourselves to get closer to final goal
76
algorithms
strategies that lead to the solution of a problem
77
heuristics
shortcut strategies that suggest a solution
78
how do you evaluate solutions?
have a clear criteria in your head
79
fixation
using a prior strategy and failing to look at a new problem with a new perspective
80
functional fixedness
individuals fail to solve problems since they are focused on an objects usual function
81
reasoning
transforming information to reach a conclusion
82
inductive reasoning
going from specific observations to generalisations
83
deductive
forming a general principle known to be true from specific instance
84
what is decision making?
evaluating alternatives and choosing among them
85
what are two systems of reasoning and decision making
automatic and controlled
86
loss aversion
tendency to weight potential losses more heavily than potential gains
87
confirmation bias
tendency to search for and use information which supports your own ideas
88
base rate neglect
tendency to ignore factual information in favour of very specific but vivid information
89
hindsight bias
convincing yourself you knew something after viewing it even though you didn’t
90
representativeness heuristic
making judgements about people based on their physical appearance and stereotypes
91
availability heuristic
predicting possible outcome based on prior knowledge of how things turn out
92
endorsement effect
we assign greater value to things that we own
93
sunk cost fallacy
people are unlikely to give up on a venture due to past involvement
94
critical thinking
thinking reflectively and productively and evaluating evidence
95
what two habits improve critical thinking?
mindfulness and open mindedness
96
mindfulness
being alert and mentally present during one’s everyday activities
97
open mindedness
being receptive to other ways of looking at things
98
what is creative thinking?
uncovering the best solution to a problem
99
creativity
being able to think about something in unusual ways
100
divergent thinking
produces many solutions to same problem
101
convergent thinking
produced the single best solution to a problem
102
what is intelligence
an all purpose ability to do well on cognitive tasks, solve problems and learn from experience
103
validity
the extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure
104
reliability
the extent to which a test yields a consistent measure of performance
105
standardisation
involves developing uniform procedures for administering and scoring a test
106
mental age
individuals level of mental development relative to that of others
107
triarchic theory of intelligence
intelligence comes in three forms (analytical, creative and practical)
108
what does gardner suggest
there are nine types of intelligence
109
what is language?
form of communication based on system of symbols
110
phonology
languages sound system
111
morphology
languages rules for word formation
112
syntax
languages rules for combining words to form acceptable phrases and sentences
113
semantics
meaning of words and sentences in a particular language
114
pragmatics
ability of language to communicate more than what is said
115
systems required for language
brain, nervous system, vocal apparatus
116
what was required for survival in humans
communication
117
what is broca’s area for? (at front)
speech production
118
what is wernicke’s area for? (at back)
language comprehension
119
how does environment influence language
parents happy reactions will reinforce that it is good to say those things
120
when do babies start to babble?
4-6 months
121
when do babies specialise in speech sounds?
6 months
122
when are first words?
10-13 months
123
when are two word statements said and gestures understood?
18-24 months
124
cognitive appraisal
refers to persons interpretation of a situation
125
coping
a kind of problem solving to reduce stress
126
benefit finding
looking at a stressful event in a particular way
127
development
pattern of continuity and change in human capabilities throughout life
128
physical changes
occur in individuals biological nature
129
cognitive changes
take place in thought, intelligence and language
130
socioemotional changes
changes in persons relationship with other people
131
cross-sectional study
people of different ages are assessed at one time and differences are noted
132
cohort effects
differences between individuals which comes from historical and social time period
133
longitudinal study
assessing the same participants multiple times over a period of time
134
teratogen
any agent which causes a birth defect
135
what reflexes are present at birth
sucking an swallowing, holding breath in water
136
pruning
eliminating unused connections
137
assimilation
when individuals incorporate new information into existing knowledge
138
accommodation
when individuals adjust their schemas to new information
139
what do young infants know?
object permanence and simple sense of physics
140
sociocultural cognitive theory?
children build cognitive abilities through their social interactions
141
temperament
an individual’s behavioural style and characteristic way of responding
142
three types of temperament
easy child, difficult child, slow to warm up child
143
infant attachment
close emotional bond between infant and caregiver
144
secure attachment
infants use the caregiver as a secure base to explore environment
145
avoidant attachment
will ignore caregiver upon return
146
anxious/ambivalent attachment
is distressed when caregiver leaves and ignored them when they come back
147
authoritarian
strict punitive style if parenting
148
authoritative
encourages child to be independent with limits
149
neglectful
lack of parent involvement
150
permissive
placing few limits on child’s behaviour
151
stages of moral development
preconventional, conventional, post conventional
152
preconventional
moral reasoning is based on consequences of behaviour as rewards and punishments
153
conventional
they abide by standards presented from parents or society
154
postconventional
they develop their own moral code
155
pro social behaviour
behaviour that is intended to benefit other people
156
what is cellular clock theory
states that cells divide a maximum of 100 times
157
what is free radical theory
frailty associated with old age is caused from production of unstable oxygen molecules
158
what is hormonal stress theory?
aging of the hormonal system lowers resistance to stress
159
socioemotional selectivity theory
older adults choose relationships based on who makes them happy
