Test 2 Flashcards
1
Q
the process by which people think about and make sense of other people, themselves, and social situations
A
social cognition
2
Q
People have a reluctance to engage in effortful, conscious thought (social world is complex, impossible to attend to everything at all times)
A
the cognitive miser
3
Q
When does controlled behavior occur?
A
when something is vitally important to meeting goals and standards
4
Q
What are the 3 goals of social cognition?
A
- to conserve mental effort
- to be accurate
- to manage self-image
5
Q
In what 2 ways does the mind work like a computer?
A
- repeated experience leads to development of contingencies between stimuli and action
- develop knowledge structures
6
Q
organized packets of information stored in memory
A
knowledge structures
7
Q
type of schema that deals with the image of typical features of members of a group
A
prototype
8
Q
type of schema that contains information about the normal sequence of events in a given circumstance
A
scripts
9
Q
Schemas are generated from what 2 things?
A
- personal experiences
2. cultural knowledge sources
10
Q
rules of thumb that simplify judgements (mental shortcuts)
A
heuristics
11
Q
basing judgements on the ease with which examples come to mind
A
availability heuristic
12
Q
When is the availability heuristic useful? (2 situations)
A
- When a particular thought is reasonable
2. When it aids in learning
13
Q
the availability bias contributes to the ____ effect and the ____ bias
A
spotlight; egocentric
14
Q
the idea that our own personal actions are especially noticeable to others
A
spotlight effect
15
Q
our awareness of our behavior compared to others
A
egocentric bias
16
Q
related to availability; more salient experiences remembered better
A
distinctiveness
17
Q
2 distinct events more likely to be seen as associated
A
illusory correlations
18
Q
classifying something as belonging to a certain category because it is similar to a typical case from the category
A
representativeness heuristic
19
Q
we tend to ignore relavent probabilities in favor of salient representative information
A
base rate fallacy
20
Q
What is a benefit of representativeness?
A
categorization is important in some circumstances
21
Q
states that the primary function of emotions is to anticipate future problems (just miss leads to greater emotion than big miss)
A
simulation heuristic
22
Q
Using an anchor and then insufficiently adjusting your judgement
A
anchoring and adjustment heuristic
23
Q
Why use the anchoring and adjustment heuristic?
A
using good anchors can make negotiation easier
24
Q
Our reliance on anchors is ______
A
overused
25
Why do we use heuristics?
because they simplify things
26
When do we use heuristics?
when we lack either ability or motivation to think more carefully
27
Are we more or less likely to use heuristics when we are in a hurry?
more likely
28
When physiologically aroused, we are more likely to use ______
cognitive short-cuts (heuristics)
29
We rely more on heuristics when we are in a (good/bad) mood.
good
30
When there isn't a correct answer, why waste time thinking it out? Instead we use _______ when we are faced with uncertainty.
heuristics
31
Complex situations use more ______, leading us to rely on heuristics
attention
32
We lose attentional resources during certain phases of our daily cycle. These cycles are called what?
circadian rhythms
33
How do we avoid using heuristics?
1. conscious processing (engage in metacognition)
| 2. realize the errors in judgement and correct accordingly
34
What are the 2 types of attributes?
1. dispositional (internal)
| 2. situational (external)
35
When we explain others behaviors, we tend to overestimate the dispositional attributes, and underestimate the situational ones. What is this known as?
fundamental attribution error (FAE)
36
We often ignore obvious (dispositional/situational) information
situational
37
We assume actors have the _______ of the people they portray.
characteristics
38
Attributions change depending on if we are the actor or observer. What is this known as?
actor-observer effect
39
we tend to construe a situation to benefit the self
self-serving bias
40
What is the benefit and drawback of the self-serving bias?
benefit: we can maintain a positive sense of self
drawback: no change in behavior
41
What are BIRGing and CORFing?
BIRGing: Basking in Reflective Glory
CORFing: Cutting Off from Reflective Failure
42
preemptively providing excuses for less than exceptional behavior
self-handicapping
43
The FAE is not prevalent in (individualistic/collectivist) cultures.
collectivist
44
The actor/observer bias doesn't really have much to do with ________, as it has more to do with _____
situation/disposition; access to information
45
the tendency to see positive attributes as unique and negative attributes as common (consensus meets the SSB)
false uniqueness/consensus
46
tendency to search for information that confirms one's view
confirmation bias
47
willingness to believe vague universal statements that apply to the self
firer effect (barnum effect)
48
The firer effect is enhanced when statements are? (2 things)
1. presented by an authority
| 2. tailored to an individual
49
What is the problem with prophecies?
our expectancies can influence our behavior
50
peoples expectations lead them to act in ways that result in confirmation of their beliefs. What is this known as?
self-fulfilling prophecy
51
The parenting/custody study is an example of the ...
framing effect
52
certain emotions that are experienced across all cultures
universal emotions
53
Cultural differences in emotion occur in the degree of ____
expression
54
Individualistic cultures tend to ____ their emotions, while collectivistic cultures tend to _____ them.
show; hide
55
Women are more _____, while men show more emotions such as ____
expressive of emotions, anger
56
states that physical experience leads to emotion; facial feedback hypothesis
James-Lange Theory
57
states that physical and emotional experiences occur separately
Cannon-Bard Theory
58
A requirement for both James-Lange and Cannon-Bard theories is that emotions don't have specific _______
physical arousal experience
59
when the emotion you feel is subjective
subjective evaluation
60
The Schachter two-factor theory deals with the ____
attribution theory of emotion
61
occurs when you are feeling an emotion
arousal
62
tells you what a certain emotion is
cognition
63
the bridge study is an example of...
misattribution
64
states that emotions help with decision making; if you see something that generates positive emotion, you will approach it; if you see something that generates negative emotion, you will avoid it
affect-as-information hypothesis
65
Emotions sometimes help with ________
decision making
66
High arousal states lead to ____ decisions.
bad
67
Emotions ____ us when it comes to making decisions.
screw
68
Negative emotionality leads to ________ behaviors
impulse
69
Emotions arise because of increased _______
arousal
70
Feeling of negative emotionality reduces the likelihood that you will ________
make the same mistake twice
71
Emotions encourage us to generate __________
counterfactuals
72
______ plays a huge role in the experience of emotion.
Cognition
73
What are the 2 types of counterfactuals?
1. upward counterfactual
| 2. downward counterfactual
74
imagining a better possible outcome
upward counterfactual
75
imagining a worse possible outcome
downward counterfactual
76
pre-experiencing emotion and decision making
affective forecasting
77
People are good at picking which _____ they will feel, but bad at predicting _____ and _____ (over prediction)
emotion; how much; for how long
78
Negative emotions teach us _____
rules
79
Emotions cause the physical manifestation of the emotion, but they do not cause _____
behaviors
80
If emotions caused behavior, we would expect ________
consistency
81
Dealing directly with the problem that caused emotional distress in the first place
problem-focused coping
82
trying to cancel out the emotion
emotion-focused coping
83
Both problem and emotion focused coping are aimed at alleviating _________
negative emotions
84
The desire to alleviate negative emotions _______ behavior
encourages
85
Emotions are triggers for us to _________ (emotivations)
change
86
Motivations are _____ that something is wrong
signals
87
factors that energize and direct behavior
motivations
88
psychological states that encourage behaviors to satiate needs
drives
89
states that we need things (primary reinforcers), needs create arousal, and we are driven to reduce that arousal
drive-reduction theory
90
What is the goal of the drive-reduction theory?
homeostasis
91
emotions that convey social meaning (most)
social emotions
92
encourage interpersonal success
social
93
What are 3 social emotions?
1. guilt
2. embarrassment
3. jealously
94
feeling bad for a known transgression
guilt
95
feeling bad for a faux pas
embarrassment
96
feeling bad because your partner may leave you
jealousy
97
Emotions can trigger certain _____
goal states
98
What is jealousy/guilt induction associated with?
relationship regulation
99
Guilt is good for _______
relationships
100
guilt encourages what 2 things?
1. apologies
| 2. making amends
101
the capability to experience others' emotional states; greatest of all the social emotions; aided by mirror neurons
empathy
102
someone experiencing an emotion causes a person watching to experience the same emotion
mirror neurons
103
What do you get if you've got a person who can't show empathy?
psychopath
104
Bad is stronger than good; negative overcomes positive
Positive-Negative asymmetry
105
objective factors don't influence happiness
hedonic treadmill
106
favorable or unfavorable evaluative reaction towards something or someone, exhibited in one's beliefs, feelings, or intended behavior
attitude
107
What are the ABC dimensions of attitudes?
1. Affect (feelings)
2. Behavior
3. Cognition (thoughts)
108
How do you measure each of the ABC dimensions of attitudes?
1. affect - fear, heart rate
2. behavior - avoidance
3. cognition - danger
109
What are 3 obvious sources for attitudes?
1. parents
2. friends
3. Institutional factors
110
the more we are exposed to something, the more we like it
Mere Exposure Effect
111
What 2 things does the mere exposure effect depend on?
1. initial attitudes
| 2. co-occurance of other stimuli
112
When stimuli are paired together, they can elicit similar attitudinal and behavioral responses
conditioning
113
the pairing of a neutral stimulus with an already learned association
classical conditioning
114
reward and punishment; when something is paired with positive outcomes (rewards) we tend to like it more; when something is paired with negative outcomes (punishments) we tend to like it less
operant conditioning
115
we can watch others to find out what is accepted and match our attitudes to boot
social learning
116
sometimes we have 2 different evaluations of an object/person
dual attitudes
117
non-conscious automatic evaluation
implicit
118
conscious deliberative evaluation
explicit
119
What is one of the major reasons that attitudes can fail to predict behavior?
dual attitudes
120
who stated that attitudes do not do a good job of predicting behavior?
Wicker (1969)
121
When do attitudes predict behavior (4 situations)?
1. when social influences are minimized
2. when we aggregate across behaviors
3. when attitude is specific to behavior
4. when attitudes are made salient
122
The fact that behavior influences attitudes is used to _______
persuade others
123
If people first agree to a small request, they will later comply with a larger request
foot-in-the-door phenomenon
124
What technique do cults use to recruit?
foot-in-the-door
125
People who agree to a small request will still comply when the requester ups the anty
low-ball technique
126
tension that arises when one is aware of 2 inconsistent cognitions
cognitive dissonance
127
the cognitive dissonance motives changing one's _____
cognition
128
Attitude change is more likely if there is ________ for the behavior
insufficient justification
129
shows how we work to justify our decisions
post-decision dissonance
130
People want their attitudes to be consistent with others around them; We like for other people to have the same attitudes that we do
P-O-X Theory (balance theory)
131
_______ can make you like something you should hate
cognitive dissonance
132
We'll even work to justify _____ decisions
simple
133
attitudes that are very difficult to change; tend to be highly polarized and associated with other attitudes
embedded attitudes
134
Challenging someone's attitude (with weak attacks) can actually make it ______
stronger
135
(Attitudes/Beliefs) tend to be more resistant to change.
beliefs
136
```
Beliefs = ________
Attitudes = _________
```
explanations; evaluations
137
Even when proved wrong, convictions can become stronger
belief perspective
138
capitalize on human choice
social influence tactics
139
Forceful requests can lead to ________. To avoid this, influence attempts to use choice rather than force
reactance
140
Influence tactics are often based on ______
heuristics
141
We over-rely on _______. Each tactic capitalizes on important ________.
heuristics; goals/motivations
142
What are the 3 tactics of accuracy?
1. social validation
2. authority
3. scarcity
143
When in doubt, go with majority option (heuristic)
social validation
144
People in authority know more than me - It pays to follow the advice of a legitimate authority (heuristic)
authority
145
something that is scarce has value - related to social validation (heuristic)
scarcity
146
What are the 2 exploitations of scarcity?
1. limited # tactic
| 2. deadline technique
147
we should be consistent and stick to our commitments (heuristic)
managing the self-image
148
What are the 4 general tactics of managing the self-image (all resulting from cognitive dissonance)?
1. foot-in-the-door
2. low-ball
3. bait-and-switch
4. labeling
149
tactic used to lure client in with good deal, then convince them of a better deal or inform them of conditions of the deal
bait-and-switch
150
tactic used in which a sales person tells someone they look like a generous person so they feel inclined to oblige to the request
labeling
151
Wat are the 3 tactics of approval and acceptance?
1. reciprocity
2. liking
3. conformity
152
you scratch my back, I'll scratch yours (heuristic)
reciprocity
153
start with an initially large request and back down and make concession
door-in-the-face
154
The foot-in-the-door technique is based on _______, whereas the door-in-the-face technique is based on _______
consistency; reciprocity
155
if someone you like asks for a favor, it pays to say yes (heuristic)
liking
156
What are the 3 exploitations of liking?
1. first name basis
2. capitalizing on a similarity/shared group membership
3. use of attractive sales people
157
technique used to try to stop the influence of heuristics
the pique technique
158
To stop the influence of heuristics, you should remain __________ and ____________ the salesperson is making.
aware of the situation; rethink the requests
159
change in private attitude or belief as a result of receiving a message
persuasion
160
what is heard is more important than what is said (focus on self-talk); effectiveness of a message determined by the thoughts evoked by the message
cognitive response model
161
Thoughts of a message are dependent upon what 3 things?
1. audience (who is listening)
2. communicator (who is speaking)
3. message (what is being said)
162
central or peripheral route of thought?
1. high motivation and ability to think
2. deep processing (focused on quality of argument)
3. lasting change (resists fading and counter-attacks)
central
163
central or peripheral route of thought?
1. low motivation and ability to think
2. superficial processing (focused on surface features - # of arguments - quantity)
3. temporary change (susceptible to fading and counter-attacks)
peripheral
164
The message (central or peripheral?):
1. many arguments regardless of quality
2. flashy presentation style
3. repetition
4. emotional appeal
peripheral
165
The message (central or peripheral?):
1. high quality arguments regardless of quantity
2. steal thunder
central
166
```
The speaker (central or peripheral?):
1. credible and trustworthy
```
central
167
The speaker (central or peripheral?):
1. appear credible and trustworthy
2. powerful speaker
peripheral
168
developing counterarguments preemptively
inoculation
169
being prepared to be persuaded reduces persuasion
forewarned is forearmed
170
Physical and mental fatigue increases your likelihood of being _________.
persuaded
