test 1 Flashcards
what is the advantage of multicellular organisms?
it allows organisms to be larer and have more complex organization.
what is a disadvantageof multicellular organsims?
it is harder to get all of these parts to work together properly.
what mechanims coordinate activitis of the parts of an organism?
communication between cells, supplying cells with nutrients, controlling exchanges with environment, and intrabody transport.
What is homeostacicity?
a process that maintains the temperature and internal environment that you are required to be at to live.
some organims do not have what?
an external environment that reflects against the internal
mammals and birds can control what?
their internal homeostatic state
what is homeostasis?
the interior environement formed by an organic liquied which surrounds and baths all tissue elements.
body functions such as heart rate, and blood flow are controlled by what nervous system?
the autonomic nervous system
there are three types of nerve cells, what are they?
sensory neurons, internureons, and motor neurons
what is a sensory neuron?
a neuron that can recieve and transmit information about an animals envornment or internal physiological state .
what is transduction?
to transform a physcical tied property to a biochemical or electrical property
what isn interneuron?
a neuron that processes and transmits information to different regions
what is amotor neuron?
a neuron that creates an appropriate response.
interconnected neurons form what?
circuits
what are ganglia?
groups of never cell bodies that process sensory and motor information for a body region
a spanal cord is a series of what?
body segments
what is cephalization?
the evolution of a brain with sensory organs tha the front and the adaptation of forward locomotion and predation.
neurons are the ______ cells in the body
longest
dendrites are what?
highly branched <2um processes where signals from axons of other neurons are recieved at synapses
signals travel to the what?
the cell body or soma
signals are integrated into what?
the axon hillock
if total input is strong enough an action potential is generated at the what?
the axon hillock and axon
the neuro-transmitter is realeased into what?
the synaptic cleft
what is the space in which neuro transmitter flows through?
the presynaptic tunnel
what are glial cells?
cells that provide support and nutrition to neurons
galial cells work to do what with nuerons as well as providing support and nutrients?
creates insulation in the nervous system
what is a schwann cell?
a glial cell that insulates neurons in the peripheral nervous system
what is a oligodendrocyte?
the same insulation a schwann cell but in the central nervous system.
what is the equilibrium potential?
the potential at which there will be no net flow of ions accross a membrane
the brain uses how much of your chaloric intake?
20%
what is the nuerons resting potential?
the number of the difference inbetween e and k
what is resting potential?
neuron’s membrane potential at steady-state
resting potential depends on
relative amount of na and k channels open.
neurons send signals down axons via what?
action potentials
what are action potentials?
temporary changes in membrane potential.
the action potential has three phases, what are they?
depolarization, repolarizatoin, and the undershoot or hyperpolarization.
special voltage dependent ion channels at the axon hillock are permiable to what action potential?
na or k action potential
inputs that depolarize the cell make what?
the excitation threshold
what is the polarization of sodium?
eNA+3 (-50)
what is the resting potential of potassium?
-90
the three phases of action potential take about how long?
1-2ms
action potentials are all or none, in a guiven neuron, action potential always/never have the same shape and duration?
action potential always has the same shape and duration.
Refractory period limits what?
potential frequency
for most neurons what is the maximum hz?
100 to 200 ap/sec (hz)
what is the maximum hz in a specialized neuron?
1000
what is resting potential of a cell
-70
T/F esps and Ipsp’s are not variable in size.
F
If IPSP’s or EPSP’s occur close together they may do what?
sum or cancel each other out
how would an IPSP and an EPSP cancel each other out?
if they are both active and occur close together.
what is the peripheral nervous system
everything not covered by the central nervous system
what is the central nervous system?
the spine and brain
what is the gastric nervous system?
it controls all the intestines
what are two major types of autonomic nervous sysgtem responsibilities?
parasympathetic and sympathetic
efferent means what?
in
affrent means what?
out
what is the afferent nervous system involved in?
the sensory nerves
the parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions are what to each other?
opposite
what are the anatomical distributions of sympathetic division?
the chain of ganglia is close to the spinal cord and go to the middle of the chord
what is the anitomical distribution of the parasympathetic division?
they leave the cns from the brain by cranial nerves and there are no ganglia near the spinal chord.
what is sensory transduction?
the process of where the physical or chemical stimulus translates into the firing of neurons
what cell converts external and internal signals to voltage?
sensory receptors.
what are chemoreceptors?
respond to specific molecules or classes of molecules
what are mechanoreceptors?
receptors that respond to touch or pressure
what are nociceptors?
respond to painor harmful stimuli
what are electromagnetic receptors?
receptors that respond to electrical and magnetic stimuli
what are thermoreceptors?
receptors that respond to temperature
what are photoreceptors?
receptors that respond to wavelengths of light in the parts of the spectrum the organsim can percieve.
what light can our photoreceptors recieve?
the visible spectrum
what are mechanoreceptors?
a cuticle holding up a surface layer that compresses as it is pushed.
there are how many types of eyes?
3
what are eyecups?
a depression that develops into the pigmented and sensory layers of the retina.
what is a compound eye?
an array of small visual units
what animals are compound eyes found inside?
insects and crustaeceans
what is the ommatidia?
individual light focusing elements with each with lens
what gives a compound eyed animal resolution on their eyes.
the number of ommatidia
what is a single-lens eye?
an eye where light enters through lens and is focused on photoreceptors on a particular part of the retina.
single lense eyes do what that insects cannot?
focus in on images.
what are the two types of photoreceptors?
rods and cone
what are rod photoreceptors?
they are super sensitive to dim light, but they do not see colour.
what are cone photoreceptors?
less sensative to light but contains opsins to see different wavelengths of light or colour.
what is contained in the forebrain?
the cerebral cortex, thalamus, and hypothalamus
what is contained in the midbrain?
the part of the meristem
what is the cerebellum?
a brain structure that coordinates complex motor patterns?
what is the brainstem?
the center ffor autnomic stuff, regulating the heart, lungs, digestive system, and ect…
what is the thalamus and hypothalamus?
the thalamus relays sensory info to the cerebrum, and hypothalmus controls homeostasis and releases hormones
what is the cerebrum?
the cerebral cortex, bulk of the brian, devided into the left and right hemispheres, this produces sensory perception motor control, conscious thought, and learning and memory storage.
what is the limbic system?
it is part of the forebrian that controls physiological drive, instinctsw, emotions, pleasure, pain, reward, rage, this includes the hippocampus and the amaydala, the fear center.
what is the amygdala?
the fear center
what includes the hippocampus?
the former of long-term memory formation.
cortex means what?
bark
what is in white matter?
myleated axons
what is in gray matter?
cell bodies and dendrites
what are sulci and gyri?
folds and ridges
what does the prefrontal cortex do?
the advance dthought of humans.
what is the parietal cortesx?
this is the sensory lobe
what is a sensory homunculus?
the frontal quarter of your brain that includes all the sensory neurons that provides all felling.
language understanding is in what temporal lobe?
the left
what is the language speaking lobe in?
the left frontal lobe
there are three muscle types, what are they?
skeletal, cardiac, and smooth
what is a skeletal muscle?
connected bones that are multinucleate, long and unbranched.
skeletal muscles result in what type of movment?
voluntary
what are cardiac muscles?
these are interdigitate, intercalacted discs
cardiac muscles are what type of muscles?
involuntary
T/F smooth muscle is striated
F
muscles are composed of what?
muscle bundles
muscle fibers are single/multicellular unit
single cells
myofibrils contain what?
sarcomeres
sarcomeres consist of a unit that repeates over the course of what?
a fiber
sarcomeres are what kind of organization?
longitudinal
filiments are made out of what?
actin
a myosin molecule is what?
the coming together of two protien chains with a head, link region, and tail
how do muscles change length?
muscles produce force and slide actin filaments relative to the other filiments
the cross bridge cycle starts with the myosin binding to what to detatch from what?
ATP, actin
the myosin head catalyses atp with what in the cross-bridge cycle?
hydrolysis
what does hydrolysis do in the cross bridge cycle?
forms, adp, p, and cocks the myosin head back
what is a hydrostatic skeletons?
skeletons that use pressure of the internal body fuilds to support the body.
shedding an exoskeleton is referred to as what?
molting
some animals through several molts go through what to become adults?
metamorphosis.
what does the juvinile hormone do?
keeps the animal in a juvinile state
the endocrine system underlies what?
homeostasis
the endocrine system controls what?
water and electrolyte balance, glucose levels, calcium levels, and overal metabolism
water and electrolyhte balance is controlled by what?
anti0=-diuretic hromone (adh), and aldosterone
glucose levels are controlled by what?
insulin and glucagon
calcium levels are controlled by what?
vitimin C
insulin is produced by what?
the pancreas
when insulin is released in the blood what happens?
muscle and liver cells utake and store the excess glucose
glucagon responds to what?
a lack of gluceose to use in the body
in response to glucagon liver cells do what to it?
they catabolize it
diabetic people have too high/low glucose levels?
high
in type 2 diabetes they have a defective versoin of what?
the insulin receptor
in type 1 diabetes a person cannot do what?
synthesize insulin
what are a number of ppeptide hormones
growth hormone, insulin and glucagon, gastrin, cck, secretin, adh, oxycotin.
what does gastrin, cck, and secretin do?
digestion
steroid hormones bind inside/outside of the cell?
inside
estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone do what?
regulate the differentiation, maturation, and the functional state of reproductive organs.
cortisol does what?
mediates long-term stress response and inhibits inflammation
aldostrone does what?
retains sodium to regulate blood pressure
hormones that secrete hormones into the bloodstream are called what?
endocrine glands
the major human endocrine gland that is situated in the neck is called the what?
theyroid gland
you have two of these taht sit on top of the kidneys?
adrenal glands
the hypothalamus releses hormones to what?
the antiriro and posterior pituitary glands.
the anterior pituitary gland releases what non-tropic hormones?
gh, prolactin, tropic, tsh, fsh, lh, and acth
the posterior gland releases what?
the nontropic, oxyocin, and adh
how do you know a neuron is symatic?
it is vouluntary activation
chitin does what for the z disk?
the connect the actin and z disk
what is an endocrine signaling molecule?
a hormone
how are hormones different than neurotransmitters?
they move across much farther distances
can hormones bind to just one or multiple receptors?
multiple
what is responsible for the long-term stress response?
cortezol
what do thyroid hormones do?
growth and metabolism
what is the definition of cephalization?
the concentration of nerves in your head/face
what are glial cells?
cells that provide food and support for neurons
where are schwann cells located?
the peripheral nervous system
the anterior pituitary gland has a localised blood vessel T/F
T
what are releasing hormones?
releasing hormones are hormones that release hormones into the bloodstream
what are inhibiting hormones?
hormones that stop the releasing hormones.
what are trinary sexual differences?
the main, primary reproductive characteristics
what are secondary sexual characteristics.
the “courting” properties of a humn
T/F ADH has a role in the parental behavior and pair bonding?
F (contrary to slide)
the thyroid horomone regulates what?
the mood and enegery of a person including their metabolic rates
the parathyroid gland secretes what hormone?
parathyroid hormone
T/F when calcium is too low, pth is released by stimulating osteoclasts to break down bone
T
what gland releases melatonin?
the pineal gland
T/F melatonin makes you go to sleep
F, it tells your brain it’s time to
what is the hormone cortisol released from?
the adrenal cortex
what is the organ that causes the secretion of epinephrine and neopinephrin?
the adrenal medulla
what is self in relation to biological mechanisms?
the organsim or the host
what is nonself in relation to biological mechanisms?
forein organisms.
what is an autoimmune diseases?
where the immune system attacks it’s own cells and tissues.
what is immunodeficiency?
when the immune system does not react when it should and does not adequately protect the organism
what are cilia?
hairlike projections
what doe white blood cells do?
protect the organsim in it’s immunity to infection
what are lymphocytes?
It is B cells and T cells
where are B cells located?
in bone marrow
where are T cells?
in the mature Thymus
B cells produce what?
antibodies
what are antibodies?
Large proteins that bind to molecules on the surface of foreign cells
what ar eantigens?
molecules on foreign cells that lead to antibody production and that antibodies bind to
T cells participate in what?
cell mediated immunity
what is cell mediated immunity?
cells, not antibodies, that recognize and act against pathogens.
what are the two main types of T cells?
Helper T cells and Cytotoxic T cells
what do Helper T cells do?
stimulate the B-cells to make antibodies and help killer cells develop
what is atigenic drift?
gradual changes in antigens present on the surface of the virus
what is antigenic shift?
simulataneous infection with two types of flu virus allows the prediction of a sudden “mixed” flu variant
