TERMS Flashcards
1
Q
Metaphase
A
a stage of mitosis in the eukaryotic cell cycle in which chromosomes are at their second-most condensed and coiled stage (they are at their most condensed in anaphase).
2
Q
Chromatin
A
A complex of DNA and histone proteins that form the chromosomes. (Long strand of DNA wrapped around nucleosides like a string of beads)
3
Q
Facilitated Diffusion
A
When a molecule moves from a high concentration to low concentration. No ATP needed, membrane protein required, specificity of molecules.
4
Q
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
A
part of the endomembrane system of the cell and a subset of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). This organelle is primarily concerned with the synthesis, folding and modification of proteins, especially those that need to be delivered to different organelles within the cell, or secreted from the cell. The rough ER is also involved in the response of the cell to unfolded proteins and plays a role in the induction of apoptosis, due to its close interaction with mitochondria.
5
Q
Contiguous
A
sharing a common border; touching.
6
Q
Lamellipodia
A
a cytoskeletal protein actin projection on the leading edge of the cell. It contains a quasi-two-dimensional actin mesh; the whole structure propels the cell across a substrate.
7
Q
Kinase Signaling
A
(form of cytoplasmic signaling) are enzymes that alter the activity, expression, or localization of proteins by altering their phosphorylation. Signaling kinases are located in both the cytoplasm and membranes. They can target different amino acids for phosphorylation, including serine, threonine, or tyrosine.
8
Q
Cohesin
A
a protein complex that mediates sister chromatid cohesion, homologous recombination and DNA looping. Cohesin is formed of SMC3, SMC1, SCC1 and SCC3 (SA1 or SA2 in humans).
9
Q
Polypeptide
A
a linear organic polymer consisting of a large number of amino-acid residues bonded together in a chain, forming part of (or the whole of) a protein molecule.
10
Q
Paracrine Communication
A
a form of cell signaling or cell-to-cell communication in which a cell produces a signal to induce changes in nearby cells, altering the behaviour of those cells.
11
Q
Channel Protein
A
(Type of integral protein) A channel protein is a special arrangement of amino acids which embeds in the cell membrane, providing a hydrophilic passageway for water and small, polar ions. Like all transport proteins, each channel protein has a size and shape which excludes all but the most specific molecules. No energy needed. Goes with the concentration gradient.
12
Q
Transmembrane Protein
A
type of integral membrane protein that spans the entirety of the cell membrane. Many transmembrane proteins function as gateways to permit the transport of specific substances across the membrane.
13
Q
Prophase
A
the first stage of cell division, before metaphase, during which the chromosomes become visible as paired chromatids and the nuclear envelope disappears. The first prophase of meiosis includes the reduction division.
14
Q
Histones
A
highly basic proteins found in eukaryotic cell nuclei that pack and order the DNA into structural units called nucleosomes. Histones are abundant in lysine and arginine.
15
Q
Calcium Signaling
A
(form of cytoplasmic signaling) the use of calcium ions (Ca2+) to communicate and drive intracellular processes often as a step in signal transduction. Ca2+ is important for cellular signaling, for once it enters the cytosol of the cytoplasm it exerts allosteric regulatory effects on many enzymes and proteins.
16
Q
Peripheral Protein
A
Peripheral membrane proteins are found on the outside and inside surfaces of membranes, attached either to integral proteins or to phospholipids. Unlike integral membrane proteins, peripheral membrane proteins do not stick into the hydrophobic core of the membrane, and they tend to be more loosely attached.
17
Q
Heterotrimeric G Protein
A
are the molecular switches that turn on intracellular signaling cascades in response to the activation of G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) by extracellular stimuli. Therefore, G proteins have a crucial role in defining the specificity and temporal characteristics of the cellular response.
18
Q
Anaphase
A
the stage of meiotic or mitotic cell division in which the chromosomes move away from one another to opposite poles of the spindle.
19
Q
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
A
a membranous organelle found in most eukaryotic cells. Its main functions are the synthesis of lipids, steroid hormones, the detoxification of harmful metabolic byproducts and the storage and metabolism of calcium ions within the cell.
20
Q
Diffusion Through Channel
A
When a molecule moves from a high concentration to low concentration. No ATP needed, membrane (gated) protein required, specificity of molecules.
21
Q
Adenylyl Cyclase
A
the enzyme that synthesizes cyclic adenosine monophosphate or cyclic AMP from adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Cyclic AMP functions as a second messenger to relay extracellular signals to intracellular effectors, particularly protein kinase A.
22
Q
Juxtacrine Communication
A
is a type of cell–cell or cell–extracellular matrix signaling in multicellular organisms that requires close contact.
23
Q
Microtubules
A
polymers of tubulin that form part of the cytoskeleton and provide structure and shape to eukaryotic cells. Microtubules can grow as long as 50 micrometres and are highly dynamic.
24
Q
Kinetochore
A
a complex of proteins associated with the centromere of a chromosome during cell division, to which the microtubules of the spindle attach.
25
Lumen
The cavity or channel within a tube or tubular organ such as a blood vessel or the intestine.
26
Polar Bond
Hydrophilic (can bond with water). Needs transmembrane receptor.
27
Kinases
an enzyme that catalyzes the transfer of a phosphate group from ATP to a specified molecule. (CdK# cyclin kinases)
28
Euchromatin
a lightly packed form of chromatin (DNA, RNA, and protein) that is enriched in genes, and is often (but not always) under active transcription. Euchromatin comprises the most active portion of the genome within the cell nucleus. 92% of the human genome is euchromatic.
29
Filopodia
slender cytoplasmic projections that extend beyond the leading edge of lamellipodia in migrating cells. Within the lamellipodium actin ribs are known as microspikes, and when they extend beyond the lamellipodia are known as filopodia.
30
Microvilli
are microscopic cellular membrane protrusions that increase the surface area for diffusion and minimize any increase in volume, and are involved in a wide variety of functions, including absorption, secretion, cellular adhesion, and mechanotransduction.
31
Interphase
the portion of the cell cycle that is not accompanied by observable changes under the microscope, and includes the G1, S and G2 phases. During interphase, the cell grows (G1), replicates its DNA (S) and prepares for mitosis (G2).
32
Kinesin
a protein belonging to a class of motor proteins found in eukaryotic cells. Kinesins move along microtubule filaments, and are powered by the hydrolysis of adenosine triphosphate, a type of enzyme.
33
Cytosol
liquid found inside of cells. It is the water-based solution in which organelles, proteins, and other cell structures float.
34
Endomembrane System
is a group of membranes and organelles in eukaryotic cells that works together to modify, package, and transport lipids and proteins.
35
Cell cortex
also known as the actin cortex or actomyosin cortex, is a specialized layer of cytoplasmic proteins on the inner face of the cell membrane. It functions as a modulator of membrane behavior and cell surface properties.
36
Messenger RNA (mRNA)
single-stranded RNA molecule that is complementary to one of the DNA strands of a gene. The mRNA is an RNA version of the gene that leaves the cell nucleus and moves to the cytoplasm where proteins are made. During protein synthesis, an organelle called a ribosome moves along the mRNA, reads its base sequence, and uses the genetic code to translate each three-base triplet, or codon, into its corresponding amino acid.
37
Cyclic AMP
is a second messenger important in many biological processes. cAMP is a derivative of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and used for intracellular signal transduction in many different organisms, conveying the cAMP-dependent pathway.
38
Centrasomes
are organelles which serve as the main microtubule organizing centers for animal cells. Centrosomes are made of from arrangement of two barrel-shaped clusters of microtubules, called “centrioles,” and a complex of proteins that help additional microtubules to form.
39
Cilia
an organelle found on eukaryotic cells in the shape of a slender protuberance that projects from the much larger cell body. There are two types of cilia: motile and non-motile cilia. Non-motile cilia are also called primary cilia which serve as sensory organelles.
40
MPF
Maturation-promoting factor (abbreviated MPF, also called mitosis-promoting factor or M-Phase-promoting factor) is the cyclin-Cdk complex that was discovered first in frog eggs. It stimulates the mitotic and meiotic phases of the cell cycle.
41
Golgi Apparatus
an organelle in eukaryotic organisms that moves molecules from the endoplasmic reticulum to their destination. The organelle also modifies products of the endoplasmic reticulum to their final form. The Golgi apparatus is comprised of a series of flattened sacs that extend from the endoplasmic reticulum.
42
Eukaryotic Cell
contains membrane-bound organelles such as a nucleus, mitochondria, and an endoplasmic reticulum. Organisms based on the eukaryotic cell include protozoa, fungi, plants, and animals. These organisms are grouped into the biological domain Eukaryota. Eukaryotic cells are larger and more complex than prokaryotic cells found in domains Archaea and Bacteria.
43
Mitochondria
organelles within eukaryotic cells that produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the main energy molecule used by the cell. For this reason, the mitochondrion is sometimes referred to as “the powerhouse of the cell”. Mitochondria are found in all eukaryotes, which are all living things that are not bacteria or archaea. It is thought that mitochondria arose from once free-living bacteria that were incorporated into cells.
44
Peroxisome
is a membrane-bound organelle (formerly known as a microbody), found in the cytoplasm of virtually all eukaryotic cells. Peroxisomes are oxidative organelles. Frequently, molecular oxygen serves as a co-substrate, from which hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is then formed.
45
Karyokinesis
division of a cell nucleus during mitosis.
46
Autocrine Communication
signaling is a form of cell signaling in which a cell secretes a hormone or chemical messenger (called the autocrine agent) that binds to autocrine receptors on that same cell, leading to changes in the cell.
47
Ribosome
is a complex cellular mechanism used to translate genetic code into chains of amino acids. Long chains of amino acids fold and function as proteins in cells.
48
Carrier Protein
(Type of integral protein) Carrier proteins are proteins that carry substances from one side of a biological membrane to the other. Many carrier proteins are found in a cell's membrane, though they may also be found in the membranes of internal organelles such as the mitochondria, chloroplasts, nucleolus, and others. Can go against the concentration gradient, requires energy (ATP).
49
Luminal Protein
any protein that is retained within the cisternae of the rough endoplasmic reticulum, e.g. protein disulfide isomerase.
50
Dynein
a family of cytoskeletal motor proteins that move along microtubules in cells. They convert the chemical energy stored in ATP to mechanical work. Dynein transports various cellular cargos, provides forces and displacements important in mitosis, and drives the beat of eukaryotic cilia and flagella.
51
Non-Polar Bond
Hydrophobic. Needs cytoplasmic receptor.
52
Vesicle
a structure within or outside a cell, consisting of liquid or cytoplasm enclosed by a lipid bilayer. Vesicles form naturally during the processes of secretion, uptake and transport of materials within the plasma membrane.
53
Active Transport Diffusion
the movement of ions or molecules across a cell membrane into a region of higher concentration, assisted by enzymes and requiring energy.
Uniporter-Transports one substance in one direction
Symporter-Transports two different substances in one direction
Antiporter-Transports two different substances in opposite directions
54
Mitogen
Trigger to go through the cell cycle.
55
Endocrine Communication
a cell targets a distant cell through the bloodstream. A signaling molecule is released by one cell, then travels through the bloodstream to bind to receptors on a distant target cell elsewhere in the body.
56
Glycoprotein
Any Protein with a sugar. Used for signaling between cells.
57
Transfer RNA (tRNA)
small RNA molecule that participates in protein synthesis. Each tRNA molecule has two important areas: a trinucleotide region called the anticodon and a region for attaching a specific amino acid.
58
Amino Acids
building blocks of polypeptides and proteins and play important roles in metabolic pathway, gene expression, and cell signal transduction regulation. A single organic amino acid molecule contains two functional groups – amine and carboxyl – and a unique side chain. Humans require twenty different amino acids; eleven are synthesized in the body and nine obtained from dietary sources.
59
Cyclins
a family of proteins that controls the progression of a cell through the cell cycle by activating cyclin-dependent kinase enzymes or group of enzymes required for synthesis of cell cycle.
60
MAP K
A mitogen-activated protein kinase is a type of protein kinase that is specific to the amino acids serine and threonine. MAPKs are involved in directing cellular responses to a diverse array of stimuli, such as mitogens, osmotic stress, heat shock and proinflammatory cytokines.
61
Ligand
a molecule that binds to another (usually larger) molecule.
62
Flagella
a slender threadlike structure, especially a microscopic appendage that enables many protozoa, bacteria, spermatozoa, etc. to swim.
63
Endosymbiotic Theory
unified and widely accepted theory of how organelles arose in organisms, differing prokaryotic organisms from eukaryotic organisms. In endosymbiotic theory, consistent with general evolutionary theory, all organisms arose from a single common ancestor. This ancestor probably resembled a bacteria, or prokaryote with a single strand of DNA surrounded by a plasma membrane. Throughout time, these bacteria diverged in form and function. Some bacteria acquired the ability to process energy from the environment in novel ways. Photosynthetic bacteria developed the pathways that enabled the production of sugar from sunlight. Other organisms developed novel ways to use this sugar is oxidative phosphorylation, which produced ATP from the breakdown of sugar with oxygen. ATP can then be used to supply energy to other reactions in the cell.
64
Actin
a protein that forms (together with myosin) the contractile filaments of muscle cells, and is also involved in motion in other types of cell.
65
Mitosis
a part of the cell cycle in which replicated chromosomes are separated into two new nuclei. Cell division gives rise to genetically identical cells in which the total number of chromosomes is maintained.
66
Actin Filaments
they form a network that provides mechanical support, determines cell shape, and allows movement of the cell surface, thereby enabling cells to migrate, engulf particles, and divide.
67
Prokaryotic Cell
type of cell that does not have a true nucleus or membrane-bound organelles. Organisms within the domains Bacteria and Archaea are based on the prokaryotic cell, while all other forms of life are eukaryotic. However, organisms with prokaryotic cells are very abundant and make up much of Earth’s biomass.
68
Cytokinesis
the cytoplasmic division of a cell at the end of mitosis or meiosis, bringing about the separation into two daughter cells.
69
Simple Diffusion
When a molecule moves from a high concentration to low concentration. No ATP needed, no membrane protein required, no specificity.
70
Chromatids
each of the two threadlike strands into which a chromosome divides longitudinally during cell division. Each contains a double helix of DNA.
71
Heterochromatin
a tightly packed form of DNA or condensed DNA, which comes in multiple varieties. These varieties lie on a continuum between the two extremes of constitutive heterochromatin and facultative heterochromatin. Both play a role in the expression of genes.
72
Integral Protein
An integral protein, sometimes referred to as an integral membrane protein, is any protein which has a special functional region for the purpose of securing its position within the cellular membrane. In other words, an integral protein locks itself into the cellular membrane.
73
Nucleolus
the largest structure in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells. It is best known as the site of ribosome biogenesis. Nucleoli also participate in the formation of signal recognition particles and play a role in the cell's response to stress.
74
Lipid Bound Protein
Lipid-anchored proteins (also known as lipid-linked proteins) are proteins located on the surface of the cell membrane that are covalently attached to lipids embedded within the cell membrane... Thus, the lipid serves to anchor the protein to the cell membrane. They are a type of proteolipids.
75
Prometaphase
the second phase of mitosis, the process that separates the duplicated genetic material carried in the nucleus of a parent cell into two identical daughter cells. During prometaphase, the physical barrier that encloses the nucleus, called the nuclear envelope, breaks down.
76
Polyribosome
a cluster of ribosomes linked together by a molecule of messenger RNA and forming the site of protein synthesis.
77
Antigen
Receptor binds to that doesn’t belong in the body
78
Bone Marrow
Origin of the cells that make up the immune system
79
Thymus
Cells of the immune system undergo maturation
80
Spleen
Giant lymph node. Communication of immune system cells.
81
Tonsils
(Lymph nodes)
82
Appendix
(Lymph node)
83
Tolerance
Cells of the immune system get used to cells that belong in the body through histocompatibility proteins
84
Autoimmune disease
Immune system cells aren’t recognizing own body cells
85
Complement protein
aid in the destruction of pathogens by piercing their outer membranes (cell lysis) or by making them more attractive to phagocytic cells such as macrophages (a process known as opsonization).
86
Macrophage
type of phagocyte, which is a cell responsible for detecting, engulfing and destroying pathogens and apoptotic cells. Macrophages are produced through the differentiation of monocytes, which turn into macrophages when they leave the blood.
87
Neutrophil
type of white blood cell, a granulocyte that is filled with microscopic granules, little sacs containing enzymes that digest microorganisms. Also known as polymorphonuclear leukocyte or poly.
88
Interferon
group of signaling proteins made and released by host cells in response to the presence of several viruses. In a typical scenario, a virus-infected cell will release interferons causing nearby cells to heighten their anti-viral defenses.
89
Humoral Immunity
```
Macrophage eats antigen
passes to t-cell receptor
T-cell blast transforms
T-cell activates B-cell
B-cell blast transforms
B-cells create plasma cells and memory cells
Plasma cells create antibodies
Antibodies attach to antigen
Macrophage eats antigen
```
90
Antibody
a blood protein produced in response to and counteracting a specific antigen. Antibodies combine chemically with substances which the body recognizes as alien, such as bacteria, viruses, and foreign substances in the blood.
91
Blast Transformation
The activation by structural and biochemical changes, which occur in B and T cells after exposure to nonspecific mitogens (e.g., any substance that is capable of inducing cell division by mitosis).
92
Cellular Immunity
Infected cell passes antigen to T-cell
T-cell blast transforms
T-cell hunts infected cells
T-cell blows infected cells up
93
Tight Junctions
Molecular Seals
94
Adhering Junctions
Underlie tight junction and use actin filaments or intermediate filament (strongest protein made) to strengthen the junction
95
Gap junctions
Signal transduction occurs here
96
Nucleotide
are organic molecules consisting of a nucleoside and a phosphate. They serve as monomeric units of the nucleic acid polymers deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA), both of which are essential biomolecules within all life-forms on Earth.
97
DNA Nitrogenous Bases
there are four of these: adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), guanine (G) carbon sugar molecules.
98
Purine bases in DNA
are guanine (G) and adenine (A) which distinguish their corresponding deoxyribonucleotides (deoxyadenosine and deoxyguanosine) and ribonucleotides (adenosine, guanosine). These nucleotides are two of the building blocks of DNA and RNA respectively.
99
Pyrimidine bases in DNA
Cytosine and thymine are the two major pyrimidine bases in DNA and base pair (see Watson–Crick Pairing) with guanine and adenine (see Purine Bases), respectively. In RNA, uracil replaces thymine and base pairs with adenine.
100
DNA Structure
Double Strand Helix
Anti-parallel
Phosphate-Sugar-Base
101
Enzyme
a substance produced by a living organism which acts as a catalyst to bring about a specific biochemical reaction.
102
DNA Polymerase 3
The main function of the third polymerase, Pol III, is duplication of the chromosomal DNA, while other DNA polymerases are involved mostly in DNA repair and translesion DNA synthesis. Together with a DNA helicase and a primase, Pol III HE participates in the replicative apparatus that acts at the replication fork.
103
Primase
an enzyme that synthesizes short RNA sequences called primers. These primers serve as a starting point for DNA synthesis. Since primase produces RNA molecules, the enzyme is a type of RNA polymerase.
104
DNA Ligase
an enzyme which can connect two strands of DNA together by forming a bond between the phosphate group of one strand and the deoxyribose group on another. It is used in cells to join together the Okazaki fragments which are formed on the lagging strand during DNA replication.
105
DNA Polymerase 1
an enzyme that participates in the process of prokaryotic DNA replication. ... The physiological function of Pol I is mainly to repair any damage with DNA, but it also serves to connect Okazaki fragments by deleting RNA primers and replacing the strand with DNA.
106
Telomerase
also called terminal transferase, is a ribonucleoprotein that adds a species-dependent telomere repeat sequence to the 3' end of telomeres. A telomere is a region of repetitive sequences at each end of the chromosomes of most eukaryotes.
107
Telomere
a compound structure at the end of a chromosome.
108
Synthesis
the production of chemical compounds by reaction from simpler materials.
109
Transcription
the process by which the information in a strand of DNA is copied into a new molecule of messenger RNA (mRNA). DNA safely and stably stores genetic material in the nuclei of cells as a reference, or template.
110
Helicase
nzymes that bind and may even remodel nucleic acid or nucleic acid protein complexes. There are DNA and RNA helicases. DNA helicases are essential during DNA replication because they separate double-stranded DNA into single strands allowing each strand to be copied.
111
Heterochromatin
ightly packed form of DNA or condensed DNA, which comes in multiple varieties. These varieties lie on a continuum between the two extremes of constitutive heterochromatin and facultative heterochromatin. Both play a role in the expression of genes.
112
Euchromatin
a lightly packed form of chromatin (DNA, RNA, and protein) that is enriched in genes, and is often (but not always) under active transcription. Euchromatin comprises the most active portion of the genome within the cell nucleus. 92% of the human genome is euchromatic.
113
Nucleosome
a structural unit of a eukaryotic chromosome, consisting of a length of DNA coiled around a core of histones.
114
Codon
The genetic code is the set of rules used by living cells to translate information encoded within genetic material into proteins.
115
Amino Acid
a simple organic compound containing both a carboxyl (—COOH) and an amino (—NH2) group.
116
tRNA
Transfer ribonucleic acid (tRNA) is a type of RNA molecule that helps decode a messenger RNA (mRNA) sequence into a protein. tRNAs function at specific sites in the ribosome during translation, which is a process that synthesizes a protein from an mRNA molecule.
117
mRNA
Messenger RNA (mRNA) carries the genetic information copied from DNA in the form of a series of three-base code “words,” each of which specifies a particular amino acid. 2. Transfer RNA (tRNA) is the key to deciphering the code words in mRNA.
118
Anticodon
a sequence of three nucleotides forming a unit of genetic code in a transfer RNA molecule, corresponding to a complementary codon in messenger RNA.
119
Initiation
is the beginning of transcription. It occurs when the enzyme RNA polymerase binds to a region of a gene called the promoter. This signals the DNA to unwind so the enzyme can ''read'' the bases in one of the DNA strands. The enzyme is now ready to make a strand of mRNA with a complementary sequence of bases.
120
Elongation
he stage when the RNA strand gets longer, thanks to the addition of new nucleotides. During elongation, RNA polymerase "walks" along one strand of DNA, known as the template strand, in the 3' to 5' direction.
121
Peptide Bond
an amide type of covalent chemical bond linking two consecutive alpha-amino acids from C1 (carbon number one) of one alpha-amino acid and N2 (nitrogen number two) of another, along a peptide or protein chain.
122
Termination
During this process, an adenine (A) in the DNA binds to an uracil (U) in the RNA. Termination is the ending of transcription, and occurs when RNA polymerase crosses a stop (termination) sequence in the gene. The mRNA strand is complete, and it detaches from DNA.
123
Release Factor
a protein that allows for the termination of translation by recognizing the termination codon or stop codon in an mRNA sequence. They are named so because they release new peptides from the ribosome.
124
Polypeptide Chain
is a single linear chain of many amino acids (any length), held together by amide bonds. A protein consists of one or more polypeptides (more than about 50 amino acids long). An oligopeptide consists of only a few amino acids (between two and twenty).
125
Polysome
a group of ribosomes bound to an mRNA molecule like “beads” on a “thread”. It consists of a complex of an mRNA molecule and two or more ribosomes that act to translate mRNA instructions into polypeptides.
126
Exon
a segment of a DNA or RNA molecule containing information coding for a protein or peptide sequence.
127
Intron
a segment of a DNA or RNA molecule which does not code for proteins and interrupts the sequence of genes.
128
Splicesome
a large ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complex found primarily within the nucleus of eukaryotic cells. The spliceosome is assembled from small nuclear RNAs (snRNA) and numerous proteins. The spliceosome removes introns from a transcribed pre-mRNA, a type of primary transcript.
129
Proteolysis
(Cleave) the breakdown of proteins or peptides into amino acids by the action of enzymes.
130
Glycosylation
(Add Sugars) is the reaction in which a carbohydrate, i.e. a glycosyl donor, is attached to a hydroxyl or other functional group of another molecule.
131
Phosphorylation
(Reversible) is the attachment of a phosphoryl group. This process and its inverse, dephosphorylation, are critical for many cellular processes in biology.
132
Post-translational modification
refers to the covalent and generally enzymatic modification of proteins following protein biosynthesis. Proteins are synthesized by ribosomes translating mRNA into polypeptide chains, which may then undergo PTM to form the mature protein product.
133
Glycolysis
the breakdown of glucose by enzymes, releasing energy and pyruvic acid. happens in cytoplasm.
134
Citric Acid Cycle
the harvesting of high-energy electrons from carbon fuels. Note that the citric acid cycle itself neither generates a large amount of ATP nor includes oxygen as a reactant. (krebs cycle and next step in pyruvate oxidation) happening in matrix of mitochondria.
135
Aerobic
relating to, involving, or requiring free oxygen.
136
Anaerobic
relating to, involving, or requiring an absence of free oxygen.
137
Pyruvate
It is the output of the metabolism of glucose known as glycolysis. One molecule of glucose breaks down into two molecules of pyruvate, which are then used to provide further energy, in one of two ways.
138
Redox Reaction
An oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction is a type of chemical reaction that involves a transfer of electrons between two species. An oxidation-reduction reaction is any chemical reaction in which the oxidation number of a molecule, atom, or ion changes by gaining or losing an electron.
139
Reduction
generally means a reaction in which electrons are added to a compound; the compound that gains electrons is said to be reduced.
140
Oxidation
is loss of electrons (OIL RIG). Therefore, an oxidizing agent takes electrons from that other substance. Therefore, an oxidizing agent must gain electrons.
141
Electron Transport Chain
The electron transport chain is a series of protein complexes that transfer electrons from electron donors to electron acceptors via redox reactions and couples this electron transfer with the transfer of protons across a membrane. The electron transport chain is built up of peptides, enzymes, and other molecules.
142
ATP Synthase
an enzyme that catalyzes the formation of the energy storage molecule adenosine triphosphate (ATP) using adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate (Pi).
143
Carbon Skeletons
the backbones of organic molecules. They are composed of carbon-carbon atoms that form chains to make an organic compound. Length, shape, location, and amount of double bonds are characteristics of carbon skeletons.
144
Vitamin
Carbon compound animals need for normal growth and metabolism but cannot synthesize for themselves.
145
Epithelium
the thin tissue forming the outer layer of a body's surface and lining the alimentary canal and other hollow structures.
146
Mucosa
A mucous membrane or mucosa is a membrane that lines various cavities in the body and covers the surface of internal organs. It consists of one or more layers of epithelial cells overlying a layer of loose connective tissue.
147
Circular/longitudinal muscles
The muscularis mucosa is made up of smooth muscle, and is most prominent in the stomach. Within the muscularis externa, the circular muscle layer prevents food from traveling backward, while the longitudinal layer shortens the tract.
148
Serosa
Outermost layer of loose connective tissue - covered by the visceral peritoneum. Contains blood vessels, lymphatics and nerves.
149
Pancreas
an organ located in the abdomen. It plays an essential role in converting the food we eat into fuel for the body's cells. The pancreas has two main functions: an exocrine function that helps in digestion and an endocrine function that regulates blood sugar.
150
Submucosa
The submucosa is a connective tissue layer deep to and supporting the mucosa. Contains blood and lymph vessels that carry absorbed nutrients to the rest of the body.
151
Peritoneum
the serous membrane lining the cavity of the abdomen and covering the abdominal organs.
152
Amylase
an enzyme, found chiefly in saliva and pancreatic fluid, that converts starch and glycogen into simple sugars.
153
Peristalsis
the involuntary constriction and relaxation of the muscles of the intestine or another canal, creating wave-like movements that push the contents of the canal forward.
154
Schincter
a ring of muscle surrounding and serving to guard or close an opening or tube, such as the anus or the openings of the stomach.
155
Pepsin
the chief digestive enzyme in the stomach, which breaks down proteins into polypeptides.
156
Zymogen
an inactive substance which is converted into an enzyme when activated by another enzyme.
157
Ulcer
Peptic ulcers are open sores that develop on the inside lining of your stomach and the upper portion of your small intestine. The most common symptom of a peptic ulcer is stomach pain. Peptic ulcers include: Gastric ulcers that occur on the inside of the stomach.
158
Chyme
the pulpy acidic fluid which passes from the stomach to the small intestine, consisting of gastric juices and partly digested food.
159
Axon
Each neuron in your brain has one long cable that snakes away from the main part of the cell. This cable, several times thinner than a human hair, is called an axon, and it is where electrical impulses from the neuron travel away to be received by other neurons.
160
Target Cells
Target cells are cells that are receptive to a secreted hormone. Target cell activation is. dependent on three factors; the hormone levels in the blood, the receptor levels on the target cell, and hormone–receptor affinity.
161
Axon Terminal
The axonal terminals are specialized to release the neurotransmitters of the presynaptic cell. The terminals release transmitter substances into a gap called the synaptic cleft between the terminals and the dendrites of the next neuron.
162
Neurotransmitter
a chemical substance that is released at the end of a nerve fiber by the arrival of a nerve impulse and, by diffusing across the synapse or junction, causes the transfer of the impulse to another nerve fiber, a muscle fiber, or some other structure.
163
Synapse
also called neuronal junction, the site of transmission of electric nerve impulses between two nerve cells (neurons) or between a neuron and a gland or muscle cell (effector). A synaptic connection between a neuron and a muscle cell is called a neuromuscular junction.
164
Dendrites
are projections of a neuron (nerve cell) that receive signals (information) from other neurons. The transfer of information from one neuron to another is achieved through chemical signals and electric impulses, that is, electrochemical signals.
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Axon Hillock
This is the region where the plasma membrane generates nerve impulses; the axon conducts these impulses away from the soma or dendrites toward other neurons.
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Excitatory (stimulatory) or inhibitory
An excitatory transmitter promotes the generation of an electrical signal called an action potential in the receiving neuron, while an inhibitory transmitter prevents it.
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Jejunum
the part of the small intestine between the duodenum and ileum.
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Ileum
the third portion of the small intestine, between the jejunum and the cecum.
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Trypsin
Trypsin is a serine protease from the PA clan superfamily, found in the digestive system of many vertebrates, where it hydrolyzes proteins. Trypsin is formed in the small intestine when its proenzyme form, the trypsinogen produced by the pancreas, is activated.
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Bile
a bitter greenish-brown alkaline fluid that aids digestion and is secreted by the liver and stored in the gallbladder. (Synthesized from cholesterol)
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Colon
The colon is also known as the large bowel or large intestine. It is an organ that is part of the digestive system (also called the digestive tract) in the human body.
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Low Density Lipoproteins (LDL)
50-60% cholesterol. Transport cholesterol to tissues around the body for biosynthesis and storage.
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High Density Lipoproteins (HDL)
25% cholesterol. Carry cholesterol to the liver to make bile.
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Very Low Lipoproteins (VLDL)
Contain mostly triglyceride fats, which are transported to fat cells.
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Action Impulses
an action potential occurs when the membrane potential of a specific cell location rapidly rises and falls: this depolarization then causes adjacent locations to similarly depolarize.
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Nerve Net
a diffuse network of neurons which conducts impulses in all directions from a point of stimulus.
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Ganglia
ovoid structures containing cell bodies of neurons and glial cells supported by connective tissue. Ganglia function like relay stations - one nerve enters and an other exits. The structure of ganglia is illustrated by the example of the spinal ganglion.
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Glial cells
are non-neuronal cells in the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and the peripheral nervous system that do not produce electrical impulses. They maintain homeostasis, form myelin, and provide support and protection for neurons.
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Schwann cells
Type of glial cell, provides electrical insulation to neurons around axon in PNS
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Oligodendrocytes
Type of glial cell, provides electrical insulation to neurons around axon in CNS
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Myelin
Insulation’s produced by Schwann/oligodendrocytes
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Astrocytes
(Star shaped) protects the blood-brain barrier. Protects brain from toxic chemicals in the blood
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Microglia
account for 10–15% of all cells found within the brain. As the resident macrophage cells, they act as the first and main form of active immune defense in the central nervous system (CNS).
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Piturity Gland
Through secretion of its hormones, the pituitary gland controls metabolism, growth, sexual maturation, reproduction, blood pressure and many other vital physical functions and processes. Attached to hypothalamus. Two parts; anterior and posterior
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Thyroid Gland
The thyroid gland is a vital hormone gland: It plays a major role in the metabolism, growth and development of the human body. It helps to regulate many body functions by constantly releasing a steady amount of thyroid hormones into the bloodstream.
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Posterior pituitary
produces anti diuretic and oxytocin hormones. The back portion of the pituitary, a small gland in the head called the master gland. The posterior pituitary secretes the hormone oxytocin which increases uterine contractions and antidiuretic hormone (ADH) which increases reabsorption of water by the tubules of the kidney.
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Antidiuretic Horomone ADH
Causes water conservation by the kidney. High ADH, kidney retains more water. If blood pressure drops or blood becomes too salty, ADH releases. Causes blood vessel construction to help elevate blood pressure called vasopressin.
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Oxytocin
Stimulates muscle contraction for the birth process. It also stimulates milk flow in mothers breast. Suckling, sound, sight of baby can even release this.
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Anterior Pituitary
Releases 4 Tropic hormones to control other endocrine glands. Also includes growth hormones, prolactin, melanocytes-stimulating hormone, endorphins, and enkephalins
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Membrane Potential
The difference in voltage across the plasma membrane of a neuron
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Resting Potential
The difference in voltage across the plasma membrane of an unstimulated neuron
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Sodium-potassium pump
moves sodium and potassium ions against large concentration gradients. It moves two potassium ions into the cell where potassium levels are high, and pumps three sodium ions out of the cell and into the extracellular fluid. ... In doing so, it pumps the three sodium ions out of the cell.
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Ion Channel
Ion channels are pore-forming membrane proteins that allow ions to pass through the channel pore.
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Nodes of Ranvier
a gap in the myelin sheath of a nerve, between adjacent Schwann cells.
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Motor end plate
Neuromuscular junctions, also called motor end plates, are specialised chemical synapses formed at the sites where the terminal branches of the axon of a motor neuron contact a target muscle cell. ... The axon end knob represents the presynaptic part of the neuromuscular junction.
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Chemically gated channels
open and close in response to chemicals, such as neurotransmitters (ex. acetylcholine), hormones, and ions such as H+ and Ca+2; involved in generating graded potentials.
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Voltage gated channel
Voltage-gated ion channels are a class of transmembrane proteins that form ion channels that are activated by changes in the electrical membrane potential near the channel. The membrane potential alters the conformation of the channel proteins, regulating their opening and closing.
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Parathyroid gland
The parathyroid glands, which lie behind the thyroid, manufacture the parathyroid hormone, which plays a role in regulating your body's levels of the minerals calcium and phosphorus. Hyperparathyroidism is when your parathyroid glands create too much parathyroid hormone in the bloodstream.
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Parathyroid hormone
The parathyroid hormone stimulates the following functions: Release of calcium by bones into the bloodstream. Absorption of calcium from food by the intestines. Conservation of calcium by the kidneys
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Adrenal medulla
Produces epinephrine and norepinephrine. Develops from the nervous system. Initiates fight or flight. Recruits glucose from blood and stops glycogen synthesis.
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Adrenal cortex
Under endocrine system control. Uses cholesterol to produce three classes of steroid hormones
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Diffusion
the movement of a substance from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. Diffusion happens in liquids and gases because their particles move randomly from place to place. Diffusion is an important process for living things; it is how substances move in and out of cells.
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Residual Volume
Air left in lungs after expiratory reserve volume. Keeps lungs from collapsing
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Surfactant
Chemical substance that reduces the surface tension of a liquid. Keeps the lung from sticking together
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Heme (hemoglobin)
Iron containing group. Binds to 4 oxygens
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Positive cooperativity
It’s easier to bind molecules after the first binds with the last being hard to bind to get 100% saturation
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Bohr effect
Influence of pH on the function of hemoglobin
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Myoglobin
Oxygen binding muscle cells that hat can take up one molecule of o2. Provides an oxygen reserve for high metabolic demand when blood flow is interrupted.
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Atrioventricular valve
Does not allow back flow between atria and ventricles
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Pulmonar/aortic valve
Prevent back flow into ventricles
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Systole
Ventricle contraction/aorta relaxation
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Diastole
Aorta contraction/ventricle relaxation
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Sinoatrial Node
Natural back up pace maker. a small body of specialized muscle fibers, located in the right atrium of the heart, whose activity is responsible for initiating the heartbeat.
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Atrioventricular node
The atrioventricular node, or AV node, is one of the major parts of the cardiac electrical conduction system, which controls heart rate and rhythm.
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Resistance Vessel
The two elastic layers in arteries make arteries this.
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Capacitance Vessel
Valves in veins make veins this
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Afferent arteriole
Blood supplies the glomerulus
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Efferent arteriole
Blood leaves the glomerulus
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Bowman’s capsule
a cup-like sac at the beginning of the tubular component of a nephron in the mammalian kidney that performs the first step in the filtration of blood to form urine. A glomerulus is enclosed in the sac.
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Podocytes
Cells of the bowman capsule that come in direct contact with the glomerular capillaries
