Temperament, Personality, and Identity Flashcards
Kagan’s (1989) research found that __________________ has a biological contribution and is a relatively stable characteristic; children identified as either inhibited or uninhibited at 21 months of age and were similarly categorized at 5.5 and 7.5 years of age.
Behavioral inhibition.
Kagan also found that behavioral inhibition was related to _________________; i.e., when faced with unfamiliar situations, inhibited children had a higher heart rate, greater pupillary dilation, and larger changes in blood pressure than did uninhibited children.
Physiological reactivity.
Thomas and Chess (1977) distinguish between 9 basic temperament qualities:
- Activity level
- R____________
- Approach/withdrawal
- Adaptability
- Threshold of r____________
- Intensity of reaction
- Quality of mood
- D______________
- Persistence
- Rhythmicity
- Responsiveness
- Distractibility
___________________ are even-tempered, have regular sleeping and eating patterns, adapt easily to new situations and people, and have a preponderence of positive moods.
Easy children.
___________________ are irritable, withdraw from new situations and people, and have unpredictable habits and a preponderence of negative moods.
Difficult children.
______________________ are inactive and somewhat negative in mood and take time to adjust to new stimuli.
Slow-to-warm-up children.
Thomas and Chess developed a ____________________ model that predicts that it is the degree of match between parents’ behaviors and their child’s temperament that contributes to the child’s outcomes.
Goodness-of-fit.
Freud’s theory of psychosexual development proposes that the id’s ____________ centers on a different part of the body during each stage of development and that personality results from the ways in which _____________ at each stage are resolved.
- Libido (sexual energy)
- Conflict
Oral Stage (____________): The mouth is the focus of sensation and stimulation, and _____________ is the primary source of conflict. Fixation results in dependence, passivity, gullability, sarcasm, and orally-focused habits (smoking, nail-biting, overeating, etc.).
- Birth-1 year
- Weaning
Anal Stage (______________): The main issue during this stage is control of bodily wastes, and conflicts stem from issues related to __________________. Fixation produces anal retentiveness (stinginess, selfishness, obsessive-compulsive behavior) or anal expulsiveness (cruelty, destructiveness, messiness).
- 1-3 years
- Toilet training
Phallic Stage (_____________): Sexual energy is centered in the genitals; and the primary task is the resolution of the ________________, which is marked by a desire for the opposite-sex parent and a view of the same-sex parent as a rival. A successful outcome results from identification with the same-sex parent and development of the superego; fixation can produce a phallic character, which involves sexual exploitation of others.
- 3-6 years
- Oedipal Complex
Latency Stage (_____________): Libidinal energy is diffuse rather than focused on any one area of the body, and the emphasis is on developing ________________ rather than achieving sexual gratification.
- 6-12 years
- Social skills
Genital Stage (_______________): Libido is again centered in the genitals, and a successful outcome at this stage occurs when sexual desire is blended with _____________ to produce mature sexual relationships.
- 12+ years
- Affection
Erickson’s theory of psychosocial development stresses ______________ over sexual factors, places greater emphasis on the ______ than on the id, assumes that people are basically ______________, and that personality development continues throughout the lifespan.
- Social
- Ego
- Rational
Erickson’s psychosocial development theory has ___ stages.
8.
Erickson’s 1st Stage - ______________________: A positive relationship with one’s primary caregiver during infancy results in a sense of trust and optimism.
Basic Trust vs. Basic Mistrust (infancy).
Erickson’s 2nd Stage - ______________________: A sense of self (autonomy) develops out of positive interactions with one’s parents or other caregivers.
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (toddlerhood).
Erickson’s 3rd Stage - ______________________: Favorable relationships with family members result in an ability to set goals and devise and carry out plans without infringing on the rights of others.
Initiative vs. Guilt (early childhood).
Erickson’s 4th Stage - ______________________: The most important influences at this stage are people in the neighborhood and the school. To avoid feelings of inferiority, the school-age child must master certain social and academic skills.
Industry vs. Inferiority (school-age).
Erickson’s 5th Stage - ______________________: Peers are the dominant social influence in adolescence. A positive outcome is reflected in a sense of personal identity and a direction for the future.
Identity vs. Role Confusion (adolescence).
Erickson’s 6th Stage - ______________________: The main task during early adulthood is the establishment of intimate bonds of love and friendship. If such bonds are not achieved, self-absorption and isolation result.
Intimacy vs. Isolation (young adulthood).
Erickson’s 7th Stage - ______________________: The people one lives and works with are most important during this stage. A generative person exhibits commitment to the well-being of future generations.
Generativity vs. Stagnation (middle adulthood).
Erickson’s 8th Stage - ______________________: In this final stage, social influence boradens to include all of “humankind.” The development of wisdom (an informed, detached concern with life in the face of death) and a sense of integrity require coming to terms with one’s limitations and mortality.
Ego Integrity vs. Despair (maturation/old age).
Levinson (1986) divides the lifespan into ___ periods, focusing on _____________ between one period to the next.
- 4
- Transitions
________________ (ages ___ to ___): Entails leaving the world of childhood and forming a foundation for adult life; tasks include becoming independent from one’s family, pursuing education/employment, etc. This transition leads to the formation of the Dream, which is an image of an ideal life that guides one’s decisions and choices.
Early Adult Transition (ages 17 to 22).
________________ (ages ___ to ___): This transition is brought on by the realization that the life structure built during one’s 20s is not adequate. A sense of urgency develops as the result of pressure to fully enter the adult world, and the life structure is revised. This is followed by a period of “settling down.”
Age 30 Transition (28 to 33).
________________ (ages ___ to ___): This is a time of significant stress and reorganization. An important change is a deflation of the Dream as one realizes that one’s goals are not really satisfying and/or will not be fully accomplished. This period is marked by a shift in perspective from “time-since-birth” to “time-left-to-live” as a result of an increasing awareness of one’s mortality.
Mid-Life Transition (40 to 45).
Baumrind and colleagues (1991) framework for understanding the impact of parenting on development combines two dimensions of parenting: ______________ (acceptance and warmth) and ___________________ (control) to derive ___ parenting styles.
- Responsivity
- Demandingness
- 4
______________ Parents (high demandingness, low responsivity): Offspring are often irritable, aggressive, mistrusting and dependent, and have a limtied sense of responsibility and low levels of self-esteem and academic achievement.
Authoritarian Parents.
______________ Parents (rational control, responsivity): Set clear rules and high standards for children; rely on praise, reasoning, and inductive techniques to gain compliance. Offspring tend to be assertive, socially responsible, and achievement oriented; they have high self-esteem, are confident, and usually obtain high grades in school.
Authoritative Parents.
________________ Parents (responsive, not demanding at all): Are warm and caring, but make few demands and are non-punitive. Children tend to be immature, impulsive, self-centered, easily frustrated, and low in achievement and independence.
Permissive (indulgent) Parents.
_______________ Parents (low responsivity, low demandingness): May be overtly hostile toward their children. Offspring have low self-esteem and poor self-control and are often impulsive, moody, and aggressive.
Rejecting-Neglecting Parents.
The impact of parenting style are moderated by both ___________________ and __________________.
- Child temperament
- Cultural/ethnic background/norms
__________-borns tend to have more rapid language acquisition, achieve higher grades in school and on higher IQ scores, and are usually more achievement oriented and socially responsible.
First.
___________-borns are often less cautious, have better peer relationships, and are more confident in social situations.
Later.
The larger the _________ and the smaller the _____________, the lower the children’s achievement.
- Family
- Gap between children
Maternal depression increases children’s risk for emotional and behavioral problems, though the impact is dependent on:
- Child’s ______________ predisposition
- Presence of other ________________
- Nature of the Mother’s _____________
- Genetic
- Risk factors
- Symptoms
Physiological signs of distress in children associated with maternal depression (e.g., elevated heart rate, greater right frontal lobe asymmetry) are apparent by ___ months of age.
3.
Studies of toddlers have linked maternal depression to:
- Passive _______________
- Higher-than-normal aggression with peers
- Poorer ____________ functioning
- Noncompliance
- Cognitive-linguistic functioning
Self-awareness, or the understanding of oneself as separate from others, becomes apparent during the ___ year of life. Stipek et al. (1990) identify ___ stages.
- 2nd
- 3
_____________________ is evident at about 18 months of age when infants begin to recognize themselves in pictures and mirrors.
Physical self-recognition.
____________________ emerges between 19 and 30 months of age, when children use both neutral terms and evaluative terms to describe themselves.
Self-description.
______________________ is exhibited last, which means that they have adverse reactions to a caregiver’s disapproval.
Emotional Responses to Wrong-doing.
Changes in self-awareness are reflected in self-descriptions:
- Age 2-6: ____________ descriptions
- Age 6-10: Description of competencies
- Age 10-12: Description of ________________
- Adolescents: Abstract descriptions, acknowledgment of inconsistencies
- Concrete
- Personality traits
Gender-role identity is fairly well-established by the age of ___.
3.
______________ Theory: Gender-role identity depends on successful resolution of the psychosexual crisis of the phallic stage of development, which results in identification with the same-sex parent.
Psychodynamic.
_______________ Theory:
- By age 2-3, children recognize that they are either male or female (gender identity)
- Soon therafter, children realize that gender identity is stable over time (gender stability)
- By age 6-7, children understand that gender is constant and that people can’t change gender by superficially altering their external appearance or behavior (gender constancy)
Kohlberg’s Cognitive Development Theory.
__________________ Theory: Children first acquire gender-typed behaviors as the result of a combination of rewards and punishments and modeling and imitation.
Social Learning.
_______________ Theory: Attributes the acquisition of a gender-role identity to a combination of social learning and cognitive development. Children develop schemas of masculinity and femininity as the resulft of their sociocultural experiences.
Bem’s (1981) Gender Schema.
Racial identity awareness:
- ___ months: Some possible awareness of racial differences
- ___ to ___ years: Ability to label others in terms of race
- ___ years: Children begin to understand the social connotation of racial difference
- 6 months
- 3-4 years
- 10 years
__________________ introduced the term “identity crisis” and considered the primary developmental task of adolescence to be the achievement of a coherent identity.
Erikson.
Marcia (1987) distinguished between ___ identity statuses (patterns) reflecting the degree to which the individual has experienced (or is experiencing) an identity crisis and is committed to an identity.
4.
_________________: Adolescents have not yet experienced an identity crisis or explored alternatives and are not committed to an identity.
Identity Diffusion.
_____________________: Adolescents have not experienced a crisis but have adopted an identity (occupation, ideology, etc.) that has been imposed by the same-sex parent or other person.
Identity Foreclosure.
______________________: An adolescent experiences an identity crisis and actively explores alternative identities. During this period, teens exhibit a high degree of confusion, discontent, and rebelliousness.
Identity Moratorium.
______________________: Adolescents who have resolved the identity crisis by evaluating alternatives and committing to an identity.
Identity Achievement.
_____________________: At about 11 or 12 years of age, girls experience this in response to increasing pressure to fit cultural stereotypes, disconnect from themselves in order to maintain relationships with others, experience a “loss of voice” when they realize women’s opinions are not highly valued, , and experience a drop in academic achievement, loss of self-esteem, and increased vulnerability to psychological problems.
Gilligan’s Relational Crisis.
Bonus: Males experience a similar crisis, but do so in early childhood.
Children’s understanding of death:
- Age ___ to ___: Don’t understand death is irreversible; believe that the dead retain some of the same capacities as when alive
- Age ___ to ___: Know that death is universal and irreversible, but tend to personify it as a “bogeyman” or “witch”
- Age 10+ : Understand that the end of life is a biological process and not due to an outside force.
- 3 to 4
- 5 to 9
What are Kubler-Ross’s 5 Stages of Grief?
- Denial and isolation
- Anger
- Bargaining
- Depression
- Acceptance
