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1-5 | history > task 3 > Flashcards

task 3 Flashcards

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1
Q

René Descartes

A
  • 1596-1650
  • reasoning: RATIONALISM (deductive)
  • philosophy: DUALISM
  • contributions:
  • -> mathematics (Cartesian geometry & exponential notations)
  • -> philosophy (rationalism/dualism/undeniable existence of thought (“cogito, ergo sum”)
  • impact on science:
  • -> mechanistic world view
  • -> scientifiv study of body
  • -> idea of innate knowledge
  • -> importance of deductive reasoning
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2
Q

dualism (Descartes)

A
  • view of body-mind relation
  • -> mind is immaterial & independent of body
  • central within religions/Descartes’ world view
  • -> mind influences body
  • human soul was divine:
  • -> human thoughts/feelings cannot be studied by natural sciences
  • -> responsibility of religion and philosophy
  • soul has innate knowledge that could be recovered on basis of reasoning (RATIONALISM)
  • in line with Catholic church’s & Plato’s thoughts
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3
Q

mechanistic view of universe (inlc. human body)

A
  • everything in material universe can be understood as (complicated) machines
  • rejects notion that things have goals & intentions (= animistic view)
  • universe & matter in it is one big machine created by god
  • human soul = exception: consciousness/volition > subjectivity of human experience

Aristotelian model vs Descartes’ mechanistic view

  • Descartes rejected animistic part:
  • -> everything in the universe is a designed mechanism, made to function independently
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4
Q

mechanistic view

–> IMPLICATIONS for advancement of science

A
  • sharp distinction: religion <> science
  • -> protection from each other
  • -> Descartes’ vews primarily benefitted science
  • questioning about how soul could influence body
    –> Descartes suggested via pineal gland > was found to be unconvincing
    » “soul” was put into mechanical part of universe & subject of natural investigation
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5
Q

monism

A

PHYSICALISM:
- matter > mind

IDEALISM:
- mind > matter

NEUTRAL MONISM:
- 3rd substance > body & mind

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6
Q

Isaac Newton

A
  • 1643-1727
  • inspired by Galilei’s studies on trajectory of cannonballs
  • described gravitation and formulated the 3 laws of physics
  • “princia mathematica” (1687)
  • -> Newton presented his achievements (laws of physics)

IMPACT:

  • showed that science could uncover the mechanisms underlying reality
  • seemed to suggest that all scientific knowledge can be summarised in mathematical laws
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7
Q

epistemology

A

EPISTEMOLOGY:

- branch of philosophy concerned with the nature of knowledge

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8
Q

epistemology

|&raquo_space; rationalism

A

RATIONALISM:

  • knowledge is obtained by means of reasoning
  • based on innate knowledge (nativism)
  • deductive reasoning

> source of knowledge: reason
research method: deductive reasoning
main applications: logic, mathematics
main proponents: Plato, Descartes, Leibniz

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9
Q

epistemology

|&raquo_space; empiricism

A

EMPIRICISM:

  • knowledge is obtained by means of perceptual experiences (blank slate)
  • uses empirical evidence as formation of ideas
  • inductive reasoning

> source of knowledge: perception
research methods: observation, experimentation, inductive reasoning
main applications: natural sciences
main proponents: natural philosophers, Locke, Berkeley, Hume

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10
Q

John Locke

A
  • 1632-1704
  • father of empiricism
  • -> rejected innate ideas

TWO KINDS OF EXPERIENCES:
1. deriving from sensation > sensory input
2. deriving from reflection > mind operates sensations
» reflection without sensation is not possible

TWO KINDS OF IDEAS:
1. simple ideas:
- received passively
- cannot be analysed/reduced (= elemental)
–> sensation & reflection
2. complex ideas:
- mind actively creates new ideas by combining simple ideas
- can be analysed/reduced
» ASSOCIATION: notion that knowledge results from linking simple ideas to form complex ones

TWO KINDS OF QUALITIES:

  1. primary qualities: characteristics in an object that exist whether or not we perceive them > OBJECTIVE (size, shape)
  2. secondary qualities: characteristics that only exist in our perception of the object > SUBJECTIVE (colour, odour, sound, taste)
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11
Q

Bishop Berkeley

A
  • 1685-1753
  • first person to raise discussion on idealism versus realism
  • agreed with ideas of empiricism but only believed in secondary qualities (Locke)
    » mentalism
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12
Q

mentalism

A
  • all knowledge is a function of mental phenomena
  • -> depends on the person perceiving/experiencing
  • perception is subjective
  • -> does not mirror external world
  • all experience is within us > we never know exactly the physical nature of objects
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13
Q

epistemology

|&raquo_space; idealism vs. realism

A
  • in its extreme form, empiricism leads to idealism (contrasted by realism)
  • -> Berkeley & Hume

IDEALISM:
- human knowledge is construction of mind
- it does not necessarily correspond to an outside world
» truth of knowledge: depends on coherence with rest of knowledge in social group

REALISM:
- human knowledge tries to reveal real properties of the outside world
» truth of knowledge: determined by correspondence of knowledge with real world

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14
Q

Kant

A

sought to reconcile rationalism & empiricism:

  • argued that mind imposes structure on incoming sensory experiences
  • it requires coherent & constant input to make sense out of it

> agreed with Berkeley/Hume:
- we cannot have direct knowledge of outside reality through perception
but wanted to proof:
- perception is much richer than stated by them two
- such perception can only exist in a world of things that is not in contradiction with it

makes two points:

  1. humans not only perceive, they also think about their perceptions
  2. human perception cannot arise in environment at odds with sensations
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15
Q

Hume & Berkeley on empiricism

A

BERKELEY:
- something is purely based on impressions acquired through observation > no guarantee that it is a faithful interpretation of the world

HUME:
- causes are never observed directly > they are derived from experiencing co-occurrence of phenomena

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16
Q

Kant

|&raquo_space; makes two points to support his theory

A
  1. HUMANS NOT ONLY PERCEIVE, THEY ALSO THINK ABOUT THEIR PERCEPTIONS
    - combination of input from senses with understanding > JUDGEMENTS (goes beyond basic experiences)
    - -> in doing so, MIND ADDS KNOWLEDGE to sensations, considered innate
    - -> knowledge added by mind: those of TIME, SPACE, CAUSE-EFFECT
  2. HUMAN PERCEPTION CANNOT ARISE IN ENVIRONMENT COMPLETELY AT ODDS WITH SENSATIONS
    - even if sensations are subjective, they can only exist if perceiver live in world that is IN LINE WITH INPUT from senses
17
Q

enlightenment

A
  • 18th century
  • autonomous thinking & observation became advocated as primary sources of knowledge
  • -> rather than reliance on authorities
  • positivism
18
Q

positivism

A
  • authentic knowledge can only be provided by scientific method
  • religion and philosophy as inferior forms of explanation

> science was only source of true knowledge
only objects of knowledge were observable facts & scientific laws

main proponent: Comte

19
Q

Auguste Comte

A
  • 1798-1857
  • one of the founders of SOCIOLOGY
  • believed that science should become religion
  • -> set up “religion of humanity”
  • proposed LAW OF 3 STAGES:
    –> hypothesis that civilisations go through 3 stages:
    1. THEOCRATIC STAGE:
  • gods & spirits dominate culture
  • marks transition from animism -> polytheism -> monotheism
    2. METAPHYSICAL STAGE:
  • philosophical explanations dominate
    3. POSITIVISTIC STAGE:
  • explanations provided by natural sciences dominate
    » society reached maturity when scientific explanations become motor of progress
20
Q

counterforces of enlightenment

A
  1. roman catholic church
  2. protestant church
  3. humanities
  4. romantic movement

HOW ORGANISATIONS TRIED TO INCREASE THEIR POWER IN SOCIETY
> through CONFLICT & OPPRESSION when group is too strong
> through ALLIANCE FORMATION with other groups when it is perceived as instrumental to achieve own goals
> through EXCLUSION OF INDIVIDUALS who do not belong to group, denounced as “unqualified”

21
Q

counterforces of enlightenment

|&raquo_space; ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH

A
  • first institute to CHALLANGE SCIENCE’S ASCENT
  • was most powerful organisation in Europe > had to DEFEND ITS POSITION
  • suggested that scientific knowledge detracted individuals from real wisdom
  • dangerous if not restraint by religious morals
  • SOCIETY OF JESUS/JESUITS (1540):
    –> new religious order that combined strong intellectual passion with highly effective organisation
    » establishment of secondary schools, universities, training seminaries with many forms of education (incl. sciences) being taught
22
Q

counterforces of enlightenment

|&raquo_space; PROTESTANT CHURCH

A
  • still had to establish their power base > science as ally rather than adversary
  • suggested that scientific knowledge was dangerous if not guided by religion
  • -> without religion > no restraining force of religious & moral discipline > people use knowledge in misdirected combinations
  • churches had good relationship with science until 1870
  • -> scientists started reacting against patronising attitude of church authorities
23
Q

counterforces of enlightenment

|&raquo_space; HUMANITIES

A

[outside religion: large segment of population that preferred to keep away from scientific realm]

  • academic discipline that continued traditional study of ancient classics, supplemented with teachings of contemporary literature/art
  • studied HUMAN CONDITION on basis of reading, thought, emotion
  • suggested that is was an illusion to think that human social life could be built on reason alone
  • -> breach of traditions > tare apart social tissue & make people unsettled
24
Q

counterforces of enlightenment

|&raquo_space; ROMANTIC MOVEMENT

A
  • late 1700’s - early 1800’s
  • reacted against mechanistic world view & emphasises on reason preached by Enlightenment
  • universe a changing organism
  • stressed everything that deviated from rationalism
  • closer to humanities than natural philosophers
  • -> however, research showed that interactions between Romantics and men of science were rich and ambivalent
25
Q

the two cultures of enlightenment

A
  • first half of 20th century
  • -> division between science & religion increased
  • Charles Snow (1956):
    > regretted this separation and saw it as a LOSS FOR SOCIETY
    > both cultures had a lot to learn from each other
    > appealed for more communication by INCLUDING BOTH SIDES IN SCHOOL CURRICULUM
26
Q

precursors to scientific psychology

A
  1. individualisation in western societies
  2. philosophical studies of the mind
  3. epistemology
  4. rational & empirical psychology
27
Q

precursors to scientific psychology

|&raquo_space; INDIVIDUALISATION IN WESTERN SOCIETIES

A
  • trend towards looser social relations & greater focus by individuals on themselves than on groups they belong to
  • people derive self-image & self-esteem from OWN QUALITIES & ACCOMPLISHMENTS
  • -> rather than from position of family in society
  • started around end of middle ages and is still going
  • four factors that contributed to individualisation:
    1. INCREASED COMPLEXITY IN SOCIETY
    > increased urbanisation & industrialisation put people into more complex and competitive social networks
    > as number of occupations & trades grew, people felt greater need to position themselves relative to others
    2. INCREASED CONTROL BY THE STATE
    > people were told that society gathered & stored more and more information about individuals
    3. INDIVIDUALS PROMOTED BY CHRISTIANITY
    > religion put emphasis on solitary individual
    –> because each person’s private state of faith & relation to god is seen as essence of devotion
    4. INCREASED AVAILABILITY OF MIRRORS, BOOKS, LETTERS
    > mirrors -> people were more aware of themselves and impressions they made on others
    > before, adventures were center of stories -> then, characters took that role
    > letter writing became more common -> rise to “familiar letters” in which people explore, express, share intimate experiences
28
Q

precursors to scientific psychology

|&raquo_space; PHILOSOPHICAL STUDIES OF MIND

A
  • in 17th century: great revival of philosophical thinking
  • -> focused on EPISTEMOLOGY & PSYCHOLOGY rather than on Plato & Aristotle
  • RATIONALISM vs. EMPIRICISM
29
Q

precursors to scientific psychology

|&raquo_space; EPISTEMOLOGY

A
  • Berkeley & Hume
  • -> IDEALISM vs. realism
  • Kant
  • -> RECONCILIATION OF RATIONALISM & EMPIRICISM
  • SCOTTISH COMMON SENSE:
    > Berkeley and Hume’s idealism was put aside
    > REID believed that separation of mind & reality was out of control
    –> wanted philosophy to go back to Aristotelian view of perception
    –> saw perception as direct interaction between perceiver & real object -> raw material of experience is object themselves
    » “you see and therefore there must be”

CRITICS:
- no evidence/proof

30
Q

precursors to scientific psychology
» RATIONAL & EMPIRICAL PSYCHOLOGY
–> WOLFF

A

WOLFF

  • important moment in rise of psychology:
  • -> publication of two books about the distinction between rational & empirical psychology
  • -> Wolff took ideas from Aristotle (Axioms), Bacon, Newton

> RATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY:

  • starts from self-evident truths (axioms) & on the basis of deductive reasoning
  • -> lead to demonstration of new knowledge
  • approach guaranteed true conclusions about human soul & allowed for more involvement than just simple observations
  • Wolff thought pure reasoning entailed risk of error > psychology needed interaction between reasoning & observation

> EMPIRICAL PSYCHOLOGY:

  • built on introspection
  • -> human mind could perceive its own operations and use this information to build science of psychology

> > Wolff suggested usage of mathematical demonstration: PSYCHOMETRIA (Newton)

31
Q

precursors to scientific psychology
» RATIONAL & EMPIRICAL PSYCHOLOGY
–> KANT & COMTE

A

KANT:

  • argued that psychology could not be proper natural science for these reasons:
    1. outcome of introspection could not be formulated in mathematical laws
    2. inner observations could not be separated & recombined at will
    3. act of introspection changed state of observed mind

COMTE

  • denied the scientific status of psychology
  • proponent of positivism
  • psychology was excluded from hierarchy of sciences because of problems with introspective method
  • -> argued that introspection as scientific method was flawed -> impossible for one person to reason & observe oneself reason
  • -> claimed thath human mind could be studied scientifically on physiology & on products of the human mind

COMTE’S HIERARCHY of six sciences:
Mathematics > Astronomy > Physics > Chemistry > Biology > Sociology

32
Q

philosophical influences on psychology

A
  • 17th century
  • philosophy = spirit of mechanism

CLOCKWORK UNIVERSE

  • scholars attempted to define & describe every phenomenon by assigning it numerical values
  • -> TIME

> DETERMINISM:

  • doctrine that acts are determined by past events
  • -> understanding of order & regularity with which its part function > predict changes that will occur in operation of clock (universe)

> REDUCTIONISM:

  • doctrine that explains phenomena on one level in terms of phenomena on another level
  • -> physical universe could be understood by analysing or reducing it to its simplest parts (molecules/atoms)
33
Q

mechanism

A
  • doctrine that natural processes are mechanically determined
  • -> capable of explanation by the law of physics & chemistry

NEWTON:

  • suggested that movement was communicated by forces that acted to attract & repel atoms
  • universe consists of atoms in motion > every physical effect follow from a direct cause
  • -> must be subject to laws of measurement & should be predictable
34
Q

sociology

A
  • study of society
  • -> social relationships
  • -> social interactions
  • -> culture in everyday life
35
Q

David Hartley

A
  • 1705-1757
  • agreed with Locke that all ideas are derived from experiences conveyed through senses

> FUNDAMENTAL LAW OF ASSOCIATION:

  • ideas/sensations that occur together become associated
  • -> occurrence of one is connected with that of the other
  • REPETITION:
  • -> the more frequently two ideas occur together, the more readily the will be associated
  • men & machine:
  • -> suggested that our nerves were solid structures & vibrations of nerves transmitted impulses from one part of body to another
36
Q

derived vs innate ideas

–> Descartes

A

DERIVED:
- produced by direct implication of external stimulus
» product of experiences of senses

INNATE:
- arise from mind/consciousness
- independently of sensory experiences/external stimuli
» independent of sensory experiences

1-5 | history (7 decks)

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