task 3 Flashcards
René Descartes
- 1596-1650
- reasoning: RATIONALISM (deductive)
- philosophy: DUALISM
- contributions:
- -> mathematics (Cartesian geometry & exponential notations)
- -> philosophy (rationalism/dualism/undeniable existence of thought (“cogito, ergo sum”)
- impact on science:
- -> mechanistic world view
- -> scientifiv study of body
- -> idea of innate knowledge
- -> importance of deductive reasoning
dualism (Descartes)
- view of body-mind relation
- -> mind is immaterial & independent of body
- central within religions/Descartes’ world view
- -> mind influences body
- human soul was divine:
- -> human thoughts/feelings cannot be studied by natural sciences
- -> responsibility of religion and philosophy
- soul has innate knowledge that could be recovered on basis of reasoning (RATIONALISM)
- in line with Catholic church’s & Plato’s thoughts
mechanistic view of universe (inlc. human body)
- everything in material universe can be understood as (complicated) machines
- rejects notion that things have goals & intentions (= animistic view)
- universe & matter in it is one big machine created by god
- human soul = exception: consciousness/volition > subjectivity of human experience
Aristotelian model vs Descartes’ mechanistic view
- Descartes rejected animistic part:
- -> everything in the universe is a designed mechanism, made to function independently
mechanistic view
–> IMPLICATIONS for advancement of science
- sharp distinction: religion <> science
- -> protection from each other
- -> Descartes’ vews primarily benefitted science
- questioning about how soul could influence body
–> Descartes suggested via pineal gland > was found to be unconvincing
» “soul” was put into mechanical part of universe & subject of natural investigation
monism
PHYSICALISM:
- matter > mind
IDEALISM:
- mind > matter
NEUTRAL MONISM:
- 3rd substance > body & mind
Isaac Newton
- 1643-1727
- inspired by Galilei’s studies on trajectory of cannonballs
- described gravitation and formulated the 3 laws of physics
- “princia mathematica” (1687)
- -> Newton presented his achievements (laws of physics)
IMPACT:
- showed that science could uncover the mechanisms underlying reality
- seemed to suggest that all scientific knowledge can be summarised in mathematical laws
epistemology
EPISTEMOLOGY:
- branch of philosophy concerned with the nature of knowledge
epistemology
|»_space; rationalism
RATIONALISM:
- knowledge is obtained by means of reasoning
- based on innate knowledge (nativism)
- deductive reasoning
> source of knowledge: reason
research method: deductive reasoning
main applications: logic, mathematics
main proponents: Plato, Descartes, Leibniz
epistemology
|»_space; empiricism
EMPIRICISM:
- knowledge is obtained by means of perceptual experiences (blank slate)
- uses empirical evidence as formation of ideas
- inductive reasoning
> source of knowledge: perception
research methods: observation, experimentation, inductive reasoning
main applications: natural sciences
main proponents: natural philosophers, Locke, Berkeley, Hume
John Locke
- 1632-1704
- father of empiricism
- -> rejected innate ideas
TWO KINDS OF EXPERIENCES:
1. deriving from sensation > sensory input
2. deriving from reflection > mind operates sensations
» reflection without sensation is not possible
TWO KINDS OF IDEAS:
1. simple ideas:
- received passively
- cannot be analysed/reduced (= elemental)
–> sensation & reflection
2. complex ideas:
- mind actively creates new ideas by combining simple ideas
- can be analysed/reduced
» ASSOCIATION: notion that knowledge results from linking simple ideas to form complex ones
TWO KINDS OF QUALITIES:
- primary qualities: characteristics in an object that exist whether or not we perceive them > OBJECTIVE (size, shape)
- secondary qualities: characteristics that only exist in our perception of the object > SUBJECTIVE (colour, odour, sound, taste)
Bishop Berkeley
- 1685-1753
- first person to raise discussion on idealism versus realism
- agreed with ideas of empiricism but only believed in secondary qualities (Locke)
» mentalism
mentalism
- all knowledge is a function of mental phenomena
- -> depends on the person perceiving/experiencing
- perception is subjective
- -> does not mirror external world
- all experience is within us > we never know exactly the physical nature of objects
epistemology
|»_space; idealism vs. realism
- in its extreme form, empiricism leads to idealism (contrasted by realism)
- -> Berkeley & Hume
IDEALISM:
- human knowledge is construction of mind
- it does not necessarily correspond to an outside world
» truth of knowledge: depends on coherence with rest of knowledge in social group
REALISM:
- human knowledge tries to reveal real properties of the outside world
» truth of knowledge: determined by correspondence of knowledge with real world
Kant
sought to reconcile rationalism & empiricism:
- argued that mind imposes structure on incoming sensory experiences
- it requires coherent & constant input to make sense out of it
> agreed with Berkeley/Hume:
- we cannot have direct knowledge of outside reality through perception
but wanted to proof:
- perception is much richer than stated by them two
- such perception can only exist in a world of things that is not in contradiction with it
makes two points:
- humans not only perceive, they also think about their perceptions
- human perception cannot arise in environment at odds with sensations
Hume & Berkeley on empiricism
BERKELEY:
- something is purely based on impressions acquired through observation > no guarantee that it is a faithful interpretation of the world
HUME:
- causes are never observed directly > they are derived from experiencing co-occurrence of phenomena
Kant
|»_space; makes two points to support his theory
- HUMANS NOT ONLY PERCEIVE, THEY ALSO THINK ABOUT THEIR PERCEPTIONS
- combination of input from senses with understanding > JUDGEMENTS (goes beyond basic experiences)
- -> in doing so, MIND ADDS KNOWLEDGE to sensations, considered innate
- -> knowledge added by mind: those of TIME, SPACE, CAUSE-EFFECT - HUMAN PERCEPTION CANNOT ARISE IN ENVIRONMENT COMPLETELY AT ODDS WITH SENSATIONS
- even if sensations are subjective, they can only exist if perceiver live in world that is IN LINE WITH INPUT from senses
enlightenment
- 18th century
- autonomous thinking & observation became advocated as primary sources of knowledge
- -> rather than reliance on authorities
- positivism
positivism
- authentic knowledge can only be provided by scientific method
- religion and philosophy as inferior forms of explanation
> science was only source of true knowledge
only objects of knowledge were observable facts & scientific laws
main proponent: Comte
Auguste Comte
- 1798-1857
- one of the founders of SOCIOLOGY
- believed that science should become religion
- -> set up “religion of humanity”
- proposed LAW OF 3 STAGES:
–> hypothesis that civilisations go through 3 stages:
1. THEOCRATIC STAGE: - gods & spirits dominate culture
- marks transition from animism -> polytheism -> monotheism
2. METAPHYSICAL STAGE: - philosophical explanations dominate
3. POSITIVISTIC STAGE: - explanations provided by natural sciences dominate
» society reached maturity when scientific explanations become motor of progress
counterforces of enlightenment
- roman catholic church
- protestant church
- humanities
- romantic movement
HOW ORGANISATIONS TRIED TO INCREASE THEIR POWER IN SOCIETY
> through CONFLICT & OPPRESSION when group is too strong
> through ALLIANCE FORMATION with other groups when it is perceived as instrumental to achieve own goals
> through EXCLUSION OF INDIVIDUALS who do not belong to group, denounced as “unqualified”
counterforces of enlightenment
|»_space; ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH
- first institute to CHALLANGE SCIENCE’S ASCENT
- was most powerful organisation in Europe > had to DEFEND ITS POSITION
- suggested that scientific knowledge detracted individuals from real wisdom
- dangerous if not restraint by religious morals
- SOCIETY OF JESUS/JESUITS (1540):
–> new religious order that combined strong intellectual passion with highly effective organisation
» establishment of secondary schools, universities, training seminaries with many forms of education (incl. sciences) being taught
counterforces of enlightenment
|»_space; PROTESTANT CHURCH
- still had to establish their power base > science as ally rather than adversary
- suggested that scientific knowledge was dangerous if not guided by religion
- -> without religion > no restraining force of religious & moral discipline > people use knowledge in misdirected combinations
- churches had good relationship with science until 1870
- -> scientists started reacting against patronising attitude of church authorities
counterforces of enlightenment
|»_space; HUMANITIES
[outside religion: large segment of population that preferred to keep away from scientific realm]
- academic discipline that continued traditional study of ancient classics, supplemented with teachings of contemporary literature/art
- studied HUMAN CONDITION on basis of reading, thought, emotion
- suggested that is was an illusion to think that human social life could be built on reason alone
- -> breach of traditions > tare apart social tissue & make people unsettled
counterforces of enlightenment
|»_space; ROMANTIC MOVEMENT
- late 1700’s - early 1800’s
- reacted against mechanistic world view & emphasises on reason preached by Enlightenment
- universe a changing organism
- stressed everything that deviated from rationalism
- closer to humanities than natural philosophers
- -> however, research showed that interactions between Romantics and men of science were rich and ambivalent
the two cultures of enlightenment
- first half of 20th century
- -> division between science & religion increased
- Charles Snow (1956):
> regretted this separation and saw it as a LOSS FOR SOCIETY
> both cultures had a lot to learn from each other
> appealed for more communication by INCLUDING BOTH SIDES IN SCHOOL CURRICULUM
precursors to scientific psychology
- individualisation in western societies
- philosophical studies of the mind
- epistemology
- rational & empirical psychology
precursors to scientific psychology
|»_space; INDIVIDUALISATION IN WESTERN SOCIETIES
- trend towards looser social relations & greater focus by individuals on themselves than on groups they belong to
- people derive self-image & self-esteem from OWN QUALITIES & ACCOMPLISHMENTS
- -> rather than from position of family in society
- started around end of middle ages and is still going
- four factors that contributed to individualisation:
1. INCREASED COMPLEXITY IN SOCIETY
> increased urbanisation & industrialisation put people into more complex and competitive social networks
> as number of occupations & trades grew, people felt greater need to position themselves relative to others
2. INCREASED CONTROL BY THE STATE
> people were told that society gathered & stored more and more information about individuals
3. INDIVIDUALS PROMOTED BY CHRISTIANITY
> religion put emphasis on solitary individual
–> because each person’s private state of faith & relation to god is seen as essence of devotion
4. INCREASED AVAILABILITY OF MIRRORS, BOOKS, LETTERS
> mirrors -> people were more aware of themselves and impressions they made on others
> before, adventures were center of stories -> then, characters took that role
> letter writing became more common -> rise to “familiar letters” in which people explore, express, share intimate experiences
precursors to scientific psychology
|»_space; PHILOSOPHICAL STUDIES OF MIND
- in 17th century: great revival of philosophical thinking
- -> focused on EPISTEMOLOGY & PSYCHOLOGY rather than on Plato & Aristotle
- RATIONALISM vs. EMPIRICISM
precursors to scientific psychology
|»_space; EPISTEMOLOGY
- Berkeley & Hume
- -> IDEALISM vs. realism
- Kant
- -> RECONCILIATION OF RATIONALISM & EMPIRICISM
- SCOTTISH COMMON SENSE:
> Berkeley and Hume’s idealism was put aside
> REID believed that separation of mind & reality was out of control
–> wanted philosophy to go back to Aristotelian view of perception
–> saw perception as direct interaction between perceiver & real object -> raw material of experience is object themselves
» “you see and therefore there must be”
CRITICS:
- no evidence/proof
precursors to scientific psychology
» RATIONAL & EMPIRICAL PSYCHOLOGY
–> WOLFF
WOLFF
- important moment in rise of psychology:
- -> publication of two books about the distinction between rational & empirical psychology
- -> Wolff took ideas from Aristotle (Axioms), Bacon, Newton
> RATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY:
- starts from self-evident truths (axioms) & on the basis of deductive reasoning
- -> lead to demonstration of new knowledge
- approach guaranteed true conclusions about human soul & allowed for more involvement than just simple observations
- Wolff thought pure reasoning entailed risk of error > psychology needed interaction between reasoning & observation
> EMPIRICAL PSYCHOLOGY:
- built on introspection
- -> human mind could perceive its own operations and use this information to build science of psychology
> > Wolff suggested usage of mathematical demonstration: PSYCHOMETRIA (Newton)
precursors to scientific psychology
» RATIONAL & EMPIRICAL PSYCHOLOGY
–> KANT & COMTE
KANT:
- argued that psychology could not be proper natural science for these reasons:
1. outcome of introspection could not be formulated in mathematical laws
2. inner observations could not be separated & recombined at will
3. act of introspection changed state of observed mind
COMTE
- denied the scientific status of psychology
- proponent of positivism
- psychology was excluded from hierarchy of sciences because of problems with introspective method
- -> argued that introspection as scientific method was flawed -> impossible for one person to reason & observe oneself reason
- -> claimed thath human mind could be studied scientifically on physiology & on products of the human mind
COMTE’S HIERARCHY of six sciences:
Mathematics > Astronomy > Physics > Chemistry > Biology > Sociology
philosophical influences on psychology
- 17th century
- philosophy = spirit of mechanism
CLOCKWORK UNIVERSE
- scholars attempted to define & describe every phenomenon by assigning it numerical values
- -> TIME
> DETERMINISM:
- doctrine that acts are determined by past events
- -> understanding of order & regularity with which its part function > predict changes that will occur in operation of clock (universe)
> REDUCTIONISM:
- doctrine that explains phenomena on one level in terms of phenomena on another level
- -> physical universe could be understood by analysing or reducing it to its simplest parts (molecules/atoms)
mechanism
- doctrine that natural processes are mechanically determined
- -> capable of explanation by the law of physics & chemistry
NEWTON:
- suggested that movement was communicated by forces that acted to attract & repel atoms
- universe consists of atoms in motion > every physical effect follow from a direct cause
- -> must be subject to laws of measurement & should be predictable
sociology
- study of society
- -> social relationships
- -> social interactions
- -> culture in everyday life
David Hartley
- 1705-1757
- agreed with Locke that all ideas are derived from experiences conveyed through senses
> FUNDAMENTAL LAW OF ASSOCIATION:
- ideas/sensations that occur together become associated
- -> occurrence of one is connected with that of the other
- REPETITION:
- -> the more frequently two ideas occur together, the more readily the will be associated
- men & machine:
- -> suggested that our nerves were solid structures & vibrations of nerves transmitted impulses from one part of body to another
derived vs innate ideas
–> Descartes
DERIVED:
- produced by direct implication of external stimulus
» product of experiences of senses
INNATE:
- arise from mind/consciousness
- independently of sensory experiences/external stimuli
» independent of sensory experiences
