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1-5 | history > task 2 > Flashcards

task 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

scientific revolution

A
  • starting point: ~1543
  • series of intellectual developments that enhanced the status of science in society
  • three critical insights:
  • -> earth did not form the centre of universe
  • -> many things can be understood as “machines”
  • -> movements on earth can be described using laws of physics
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2
Q

factors that led to scientific revolution (6)

A
  • demographic changes
  • absence of stifling pressure from religion/authority
  • new inventions
  • existence of universities/patronage
  • massive enrichment from greek/arab civilisations
  • natural philosophy became detached from the big philosophical questions
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3
Q

factors that led to scientific revolution

–> demographic changes

A
  • after population nearly halved (14th century) at the end of 15th century new growth began
  • -> feudal system came to an end
  • -> cities grew and installed more democratic regimes
  • -> link between hand workers and intellectual elite
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4
Q

factors that led to scientific revolution

–> absence of stifling pressure from religion/authority

A
  • church authority first hollowed out by the Western Schism (1378-1417)
  • another blow: Martin Luther started Protestant Reformation (1517)
  • Christian religion made distinction between the worldly and the heavenly
  • -> left opening for scientific advance
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5
Q

factors that led to scientific revolution

–> new inventions

A
  • invention of paper/printing
  • -> made information abundantly available
  • invention of mechanical clock
  • -> provided philosophers with working example of mechanical world
  • introduction of compass/telescope/microscope
  • -> new ground for advanced inventions
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6
Q

factors that led to scientific revolution

–> existence of universities/patronage

A
  • provided place for natural philosophers in society
  • pursuit of knowledge about nature was worthwhile activity in its own rights
  • -> increased chances of patronage
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7
Q

factors that led to scientific revolution

–> massive enrichment from greek/arab civilisations

A
  • many more ancient texts became available (16th century)
  • -> as well as thoughts of Democritus/Epicurus/Lucretius
  • increased access by subsequent flight of greek scholars to italy after fall of Constantinople (1453)
  • -> Cohen: major breakthroughs happen when two main civilisations interact
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8
Q

factors that led to scientific revolution

–> natural philosophy became detached from the big philosophical questions

A
  • natural philosopher felt allowed to study phenomena without prior knowledge of the totality of things
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9
Q

4 factors of modern science

A
  1. acknowledge of no authorities except the authority of nature itself
  2. it is experimental: built upon direct observation AND artificial experiments
  3. favouring of mechanistic world picture
  4. description/explanation of natural things/events in mathematical terms
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10
Q

industrial revolution

A
  • 19th century
  • technological changes began to affect the socioeconomic conditions of people:
  • -> mechanical devices
  • -> live longer on average
  • -> better health conditions
  • -> becoming more literate
  • -> more general knowledge about the world
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11
Q

Aristotelian worldview

A
  • 300 BC - 1.600 AD
  • geocentric universe
  • sublunar/superlunar region
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12
Q

sublunar/superlunar region

A

SUBLUNAR REGION:

  • the region between the (incl.) earth and moon
  • -> four basic elements:
    1. earth
    2. water
    3. air
    4. fire

SUPERLUNAR REGION:

  • the region beyond moon
  • -> including moon/sun/planets/stars
  • -> composed out of fifth basic element:
    1. ether
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13
Q

geocentric universe

A

model of the universe in which the EARTH is at the centre

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14
Q

heliocentric model

A

model of the universe in which the SUN is at the centre

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15
Q

Copernicus

A
  • heliocentric model (1514)
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16
Q

Galileo Galilei

A
  • 1564-1642
  • found new information about heliocentric model by observations trough telescope
  • published book which defended this model
  • got house arrested in Rome for challenging the church’s view
17
Q

René Descartes

A
  • 1596-1650
  • rationalist
  • Dualism
  • mechanistic view
18
Q

factors that helped the rising science grow (3)

A
  1. absence of disasters
    - -> 15th-19th century
  2. benevolent religion
    - -> protestant churches encouraged to study bible as well as science
  3. establishment of learned societies
    - -> natural philosophers stablished structures to advance and solidify their status
19
Q

Francis Bacon

A
  • 1562-1626
  • empiricist
  • published “novum organum” (new organ) in 1620
  • -> neither perception nor reasoning alone provides progress
  • introduced experimental history
20
Q

experimental history

A
  • introduced by Bacon (1620)
  • contrasting to natural history
  • situations are actively manipulated to observe effects on phenomenon
  • -> rather than passively observing (natural history)
21
Q

“novum organum” (new organ)

A
  • 1620
  • neither perception nor reasoning alone provides progress > interaction is required
  • perception is limited:
  • -> tends to be biased
  • —> correction: particular attention should be paid to deviating observations
  • -> senses are limited: people don’t observe everything correctly
  • -> observations need to be accompanied by reasoning/understanding > useful knowledge
  • —> solution: TOUGHER COUPLING between observations and reasoning & make observation much more SEMANTIC
  • observations/clarifying experiments must result in deeper understanding
  • -> natural philosopher must go from “particulars” to “axioms” (principles)
  • “crucial instances”: observations/clarifying experiments may decide between two alternative explanations
  • working with axiom hierarchy:
  • -> starting with lesser axiom, going over middle axioms to the highest axioms (staying close to observations > general/abstract principles)
22
Q

Dualism

A
  • view of mind-body relation:
    > mind is immaterial and completely independent of the body
  • central with religions and in Descartes’ philosophy
23
Q

mechanistic (world)view

A
  • everything in the material universe can be understood as a complicated machine
  • discards notion that things have goals and intentions (alchemists view)
  • identified with Descartes
24
Q

inductive vs. deductive reasoning

A

INDUCTIVE:

  • “bottom-up”
  • empiricism
  • starts from observations
  • goal: reach general conclusions on the basis of convergences in observations
  • function: turn observed phenomena into scientific laws
  • -> does not guarantee that conclusions are true

DEDUCTIVE:

  • “top-down”
  • rationalism
  • starts from a number of indisputable premises
  • function: drawing new/true conclusions
  • -> if rules of logic are followed conclusions are guaranteed to be true
25
Q

direct vs. indirect evidence

A

DIRECT:

  • does not require any reasoning/inference to arrive at the conclusion to be drawn from the evidence
  • -> looking outside and seeing that it rains

INDIRECT:

  • requires that an inference be made between the evidence and the conclusion to be drawn from it
  • -> hearing pitter patter and later walk outside and see that the ground is wet
26
Q

“experimenta fructífera” (fruit-bearing experiments)

A

natural philosophers should go beyond the experiments mechanics set up to solve practical problems

27
Q

“experimenta lucifera” (light-bringing experiments)

A

natural philosophers should use additional experiments to determine the true causes of phenomena

1-5 | history (7 decks)

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