task 2 Flashcards
scientific revolution
- starting point: ~1543
- series of intellectual developments that enhanced the status of science in society
- three critical insights:
- -> earth did not form the centre of universe
- -> many things can be understood as “machines”
- -> movements on earth can be described using laws of physics
factors that led to scientific revolution (6)
- demographic changes
- absence of stifling pressure from religion/authority
- new inventions
- existence of universities/patronage
- massive enrichment from greek/arab civilisations
- natural philosophy became detached from the big philosophical questions
factors that led to scientific revolution
–> demographic changes
- after population nearly halved (14th century) at the end of 15th century new growth began
- -> feudal system came to an end
- -> cities grew and installed more democratic regimes
- -> link between hand workers and intellectual elite
factors that led to scientific revolution
–> absence of stifling pressure from religion/authority
- church authority first hollowed out by the Western Schism (1378-1417)
- another blow: Martin Luther started Protestant Reformation (1517)
- Christian religion made distinction between the worldly and the heavenly
- -> left opening for scientific advance
factors that led to scientific revolution
–> new inventions
- invention of paper/printing
- -> made information abundantly available
- invention of mechanical clock
- -> provided philosophers with working example of mechanical world
- introduction of compass/telescope/microscope
- -> new ground for advanced inventions
factors that led to scientific revolution
–> existence of universities/patronage
- provided place for natural philosophers in society
- pursuit of knowledge about nature was worthwhile activity in its own rights
- -> increased chances of patronage
factors that led to scientific revolution
–> massive enrichment from greek/arab civilisations
- many more ancient texts became available (16th century)
- -> as well as thoughts of Democritus/Epicurus/Lucretius
- increased access by subsequent flight of greek scholars to italy after fall of Constantinople (1453)
- -> Cohen: major breakthroughs happen when two main civilisations interact
factors that led to scientific revolution
–> natural philosophy became detached from the big philosophical questions
- natural philosopher felt allowed to study phenomena without prior knowledge of the totality of things
4 factors of modern science
- acknowledge of no authorities except the authority of nature itself
- it is experimental: built upon direct observation AND artificial experiments
- favouring of mechanistic world picture
- description/explanation of natural things/events in mathematical terms
industrial revolution
- 19th century
- technological changes began to affect the socioeconomic conditions of people:
- -> mechanical devices
- -> live longer on average
- -> better health conditions
- -> becoming more literate
- -> more general knowledge about the world
Aristotelian worldview
- 300 BC - 1.600 AD
- geocentric universe
- sublunar/superlunar region
sublunar/superlunar region
SUBLUNAR REGION:
- the region between the (incl.) earth and moon
- -> four basic elements:
- earth
- water
- air
- fire
SUPERLUNAR REGION:
- the region beyond moon
- -> including moon/sun/planets/stars
- -> composed out of fifth basic element:
- ether
geocentric universe
model of the universe in which the EARTH is at the centre
heliocentric model
model of the universe in which the SUN is at the centre
Copernicus
- heliocentric model (1514)
Galileo Galilei
- 1564-1642
- found new information about heliocentric model by observations trough telescope
- published book which defended this model
- got house arrested in Rome for challenging the church’s view
René Descartes
- 1596-1650
- rationalist
- Dualism
- mechanistic view
factors that helped the rising science grow (3)
- absence of disasters
- -> 15th-19th century - benevolent religion
- -> protestant churches encouraged to study bible as well as science - establishment of learned societies
- -> natural philosophers stablished structures to advance and solidify their status
Francis Bacon
- 1562-1626
- empiricist
- published “novum organum” (new organ) in 1620
- -> neither perception nor reasoning alone provides progress
- introduced experimental history
experimental history
- introduced by Bacon (1620)
- contrasting to natural history
- situations are actively manipulated to observe effects on phenomenon
- -> rather than passively observing (natural history)
“novum organum” (new organ)
- 1620
- neither perception nor reasoning alone provides progress > interaction is required
- perception is limited:
- -> tends to be biased
- —> correction: particular attention should be paid to deviating observations
- -> senses are limited: people don’t observe everything correctly
- -> observations need to be accompanied by reasoning/understanding > useful knowledge
- —> solution: TOUGHER COUPLING between observations and reasoning & make observation much more SEMANTIC
- observations/clarifying experiments must result in deeper understanding
- -> natural philosopher must go from “particulars” to “axioms” (principles)
- “crucial instances”: observations/clarifying experiments may decide between two alternative explanations
- working with axiom hierarchy:
- -> starting with lesser axiom, going over middle axioms to the highest axioms (staying close to observations > general/abstract principles)
Dualism
- view of mind-body relation:
> mind is immaterial and completely independent of the body - central with religions and in Descartes’ philosophy
mechanistic (world)view
- everything in the material universe can be understood as a complicated machine
- discards notion that things have goals and intentions (alchemists view)
- identified with Descartes
inductive vs. deductive reasoning
INDUCTIVE:
- “bottom-up”
- empiricism
- starts from observations
- goal: reach general conclusions on the basis of convergences in observations
- function: turn observed phenomena into scientific laws
- -> does not guarantee that conclusions are true
DEDUCTIVE:
- “top-down”
- rationalism
- starts from a number of indisputable premises
- function: drawing new/true conclusions
- -> if rules of logic are followed conclusions are guaranteed to be true
direct vs. indirect evidence
DIRECT:
- does not require any reasoning/inference to arrive at the conclusion to be drawn from the evidence
- -> looking outside and seeing that it rains
INDIRECT:
- requires that an inference be made between the evidence and the conclusion to be drawn from it
- -> hearing pitter patter and later walk outside and see that the ground is wet
“experimenta fructífera” (fruit-bearing experiments)
natural philosophers should go beyond the experiments mechanics set up to solve practical problems
“experimenta lucifera” (light-bringing experiments)
natural philosophers should use additional experiments to determine the true causes of phenomena
