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1-5 | history > task 1 > Flashcards

task 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

emergence of fire

A

first emerged during the time of homo Erectus

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2
Q

different uses of fire/consequences

A
  • guarding against animal predators
  • cooking food > better quality > growth of brain / less illnesses (less bacteria)
  • as heating source > possibility of traveling to colder climates > cultural expansion
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3
Q

what are the fundamental problems with fire?

A
  1. problem of ignition:
    • natural caused > is not always there when needed fire > what technique causes combustion?
    • friction between two dry inflammable surfaces > raises point of contact to temperature at which combustion will occur
  2. problem of choice of fuel
    • wood is most efficient producer of heat / some sorts are better than others
    • breackthrough: charcoal
  3. problem of extension of the range of use
    • application is largely confined to cooking by roasting
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4
Q

starting point of “science”

A
  • discovery of pottery (5th millennium BC)
  • discovery/development of glass (5.000 years ago)
  • technology of metals (after pottery/most kinds: 19th century)
  • writing and scientific record (6.000-300 BC)
  • numbers/measurement (35.000-20.000 BC)
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5
Q

Cambrian explosion

A
  • beginning of “real life”
  • some 542 million years ago
  • -> emergence of organic life forms
  • -> start of photosynthesis
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6
Q

Cambrian explosion: further divisions

A
  • Paleozoic era: 540-250 million
  • Mesozoic era: 250-66 million
  • Cenozoic era: 66 million to now
    => throughout this time: intelligence wasn’t necessary for survival
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7
Q

Neolithic revolution

A
  • around 10.000 BC
  • transition from nomadic HUNTER-GATHERER -> FARMING & SETTLEMENT
  • greater complexity of SOCIAL INTERACTIONS
  • further impetus for THOUGHT & LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
  • sedentary farming communities changed human interactions:
  • -> from COOPERATION & SHARING > PROTECTION of goods & increased level of CONFLICT
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8
Q

preliterate civilisation: 3 characteristics

-> Lindberg

A
  1. KNOW-HOW
    - knowledge is confined to “know-how” WITHOUT theoretical understanding of underlying principles
  2. FLUIDITY OF KNOWLEDGE
    - historical knowledge is limited to two generations
    - function of oral tradition is transmission of practical skills
  3. ANIMISM
    - collection of myths and stories about beginning of universe / life / natural phenomena / etc.
    - -> based on animism

=> scientific thinking cannot occur without written records

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9
Q

animism

A
  • explanation of workings of the world and the universe by means of spirits with human-like characteristics
  • distinction between “primitive people” and “scientific thinking”
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10
Q

protowriting

A
  • emerged at around 6.000-300 BC in China / Egypt & Sumer / America
  • represents entities without linguistic information linking them
  • writing systems were a combination of pictograms and phonograms
  • led to alphabetic writing system
  • -> became logographic rather than pictographic
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11
Q

pictograms & phonograms

A

pictogram:
information conveying sign that consists of a picture resembling the object it represents

phonogram:
a sign that represents a sound or a syllable of spoken language

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12
Q

first alphabet ?????????

A

=> written records as basis of comulative nature of science

–> however: Socrates thought that availability of books made students lazy and discouraged them from properly studying

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13
Q

scholastic method

A
  • particularly in the Middle ages
  • students were taught to read and understand texts exactly as they were
  • its abandonment by the Protestant churches was one of the reasons why science took such a high flight
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14
Q

scriptio continua

A
  • in 8th century
  • writers start to put spaces between the words
  • -> this quality of texts made silent reading possible
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15
Q

numbers

A
  • 35.000-20.000 BC: earliest evidence of counting
  • quite early in evolution of human they could make distinctions up to three
  • -> subitising
  • all Indo-European languages share same roots for umbers 1 to 10
  • -> split around 2.000 BC
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16
Q

place coding system

A
  • fully in use by 500 AD
  • system in which the meaning of a sign not only depends on its FORM but also on its POSITION in a string: “46.997”
  • symbol for absence of a quantity at certain slot: “0”
  • system was adopted by Arabs > changed & resulted in the current practice (Arabic numerals) s
17
Q

egyptian vs. mesopotamian numeric advances

A

egyptians:
- main contributions were:
- -> geometrical knowledge
- -> devising of a calendar

mesopotamians:
- mathematical knowledge
- -> advanced number system
- -> mastering of basic algebraic equations
- —> practical use on astronomy

18
Q

consequences of growth of science

A

resulted in different qualities:

  • political stability
  • urbanisation
  • patronage
  • availability of a writing system
19
Q

philosophy

A
  • around 600 BCE

- greeks were the first culture that started asking serious questions about the nature of the world

20
Q

Plato’s

A
  • 427-348 BC
  • distinction between realm of eternal and realm of the ever-changing material reality
    –> true path to knowledge was inward of reasoning rather than the outward path of perception
    => RATIONALISM (theoretical)
21
Q

Aristotle

A
  • 384-322 BC
  • had been member of Plato’s school
  • based his knowledge on careful observation of reality
  • wrote extensively on human physiology and psychology
    => EMPIRICISM (practical)
22
Q

four schools of Athen

A
  1. academy (Plato)
  2. lyceum (Aristotle)
  3. Stoa
    - -> based on self-control / fortitude / detachment from distracting emotions
  4. Garden of Epicurus
    - -> based on virtuous and temperate life with enjoyment of simple pleasure by knowledge and friendship
23
Q

Romans on acquiring knowledge

A

romans are much more interested in practical questions than the philosophical debates that preoccupied the Greeks

24
Q

Byzantine empire

A
  • 395-1453 AD
  • dominance of Greek culture and language
  • main contribution of history of science was the preservation of the Greek’s legacy
  • emergence and eventual dominance of Christian religion > main factor for decline of scientific advancement
25
Q

Arab empire

A
  • 622-750
  • interest in science got a strong impetus 749 EC
  • -> apport / translation / research / advancement of Greek works
26
Q

remains of the Western Roman Empire

A
  • towards end: sharp decline in scientific endeavour
  • -> due to political upheaval and economic downfall
  • diminishing knowledge of Greek language
  • -> Romans dominated other nations > inclination to learn Latin rather than Greek

=> leads to the “Dark Ages”

27
Q

“Dark Ages”

A
  • middle ages in Western Europe (after fall of Rome 476 AD)
  • catholic church became patron of learning
  • -> science was not at the forefront of education
  • -> scientific knowledge fell back from the level it had reached
28
Q

Renaissance

A
  • 15th-16th century
  • “revival of learning” > foundation of schools and universities
  • -> arabic and greek texts included in curricula
29
Q

protestant reformation

A
  • starting 1516 AD
  • Martin Luther revolted against the perceived greed and corruption of Papacy
  • emphasised the need for education / CRITICAL THINKING (rather than scholastic method) / hard work / worldly success
    => further development of science
30
Q

book printing

A
  • around 1450 AD
  • invention of book printing in Europe by Johannes Gutenberg
    => rapid and massive availability of information
31
Q

biases in history writing

A
  • focus on individuals
  • matthew effect
  • hindsight bias
  • ethnocentrism
  • summaries of summaries
32
Q

biases in history writing:

focus on individuals

A
  • historical writings are focused on individuals

- zeitgeist: time has come for an invention to be discovered > usually not only one did discover it

33
Q

biases in history writing:

matthew effect

A

more credit is given to eminent scientists than they actually deserve

34
Q

biases in history writing:

hindsight bias

A

tendency to assume that individuals knew more than they actually did

35
Q

biases in history writing:

ethnocentrism

A

tendency to give too much credit to the input of economically dominant groups

36
Q

biases in history writing:

summaries of summaries

A
  • very few general history books are based on a full analysis of the original sources
  • -> build on other books summaries
37
Q

ARTICLE: Dunbar

A
  • neocortex ←→ groups size
  • species-related limited groups size
  • -> consequence of enlarged brain size
38
Q

Fertile Crescent

A
  • region in the middle east with high level of civilisation at around 3.000 BC
  • incl. ancient Mesopotamian & ancient Egyptian civilisation
39
Q

sumerian number system

A
  • base on 60

- consequences: our time units are based on 60 (sec./min./h.)

1-5 | history (7 decks)

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