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Anatomy II > T4 > Flashcards

T4 Flashcards

1
Q

Two main fluid compartments

A

Intracellular Fluid

Extracellular Fluid

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2
Q

Intracellular Fluid

Extracellular Fluid

A
  • about two thirds by volume, contained in cells

consists of two major subdivisions
Plasma - the fluid portion of the blood
Interstitial fluid (IF) - fluid in spaces between cells

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3
Q

universal solvent

A

water

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4
Q

Solutes are classified into>

A

electrolytes and non-electrolytes

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5
Q

electrolytes

A

dissociate into ions in water
inorganic salts, all acids and bases, and some proteins
Electrolytes determine the chemical and physical reactions of fluids
Electrolytes have greater osmotic power than nonelectrolytes
Water moves according to osmotic gradients

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6
Q

non-electrolytes

A

examples include glucose, lipids, creatinine, and urea

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7
Q

electrolyte concentration

A

measure of electrical charges per liter of solution

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8
Q

Extracellular fluids

Intracellular fluids

A

sodium-cation
chloride-anion

potassium-cation
phosphate-anion

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9
Q

compartmental exchange is regulated by what>

A

osmotic and hydrostatic pressures

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10
Q

the only fluid that circulates throughout the body and links external and internal environments

A

plasma

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11
Q

fluid movement between plasma and IF across capillary walls

A

Fluid leaks from arteriole end of capillary, reabsorbed at venule end; lymphatics pick up remaining and return to blood

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12
Q

fluid movement between IF and ICF across cell membrane

A

Two-way osmotic flow of water

Ions move selectively; nutrients, wastes, gases unidirectional

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13
Q

change in solute concentration of any compartment leads to what?

A

net water flow

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14
Q

Water intake sources

Water output sources

A 
Ingested fluid (60%) and solid food (30%)
Metabolic water or water of oxidation (10%)

Urine (60%) and feces (4%)
Insensible losses (28%), sweat (8%)
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15
Q

Increases in plasma osmolality triggers what?

A

thirst and release of antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

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16
Q

drives water seeking

A

Hypothalmic Thirst Center

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17
Q

Influence and Regulation of ADH

A

Water reabsorption in kidney’s collecting ducts is proportional to ADH release

Low ADH levels produce dilute urine and reduced volume of body fluids
High ADH levels produce concentrated urine

Hypothalamic osmoreceptors trigger or inhibit ADH release

Factors that specifically trigger ADH release include: prolonged fever; excessive sweating, vomiting, or diarrhea; severe blood loss; and traumatic burns

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18
Q

Dehydration

A

Water loss exceeds water intake and the body is in negative fluid balance

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19
Q

causes of dehydration

signs and symptoms

A

hemorrhage, severe burns, prolonged vomiting or diarrhea, profuse sweating, water deprivation, and diuretic abuse

cottonmouth, thirst, dry flushed skin, and oliguria (v. low urine production)

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20
Q

hypotonic hydration

A

Renal Insufficiency or an extraordinary amount of water ingested quickly can lead to cellular overhydration, or water intoxication
ECF is diluted - sodium content is normal but excess water is present
The resulting hyponatremia promotes net osmosis into tissue cells, causing swelling
These events must be quickly reversed to prevent severe metabolic disturbances, particularly in neurons
Treated with hypertonic saline

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21
Q

edema

A

Atypical accumulation of fluid in the interstitial space, leading to tissue swelling (not cell swelling)

Caused by anything that 1. increases flow of fluids out of the bloodstream or 2. hinders their return back to the bloodstream
Factors that accelerate fluid loss include:
Increased blood pressure, capillary permeability
Incompetent venous valves, localized blood vessel blockage
Congestive heart failure, hypertension, high blood volume
Hindered fluid return usually reflects an imbalance in colloid osmotic pressures

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22
Q

hypoproteinemia

A

low levels of plasma proteins
Forces fluids out of capillary beds at the arterial ends
Fluids fail to return at the venous ends
Results from protein malnutrition, liver disease, or glomerulonephritis

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23
Q

Blocked (or surgically removed) lymph vessels

A

Cause leaked proteins to accumulate in interstitial fluid

Exert increasing colloid osmotic pressure, which draws fluid from the blood

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24
Q

Sodium

A

Most abundant cation in ECF
Sodium salts in ECF contribute 280 mOsm of total 300 mOsm ECF solute concentration

Only cation exerting significant osmotic pressure
Controls ECF volume and water distribution
Changes in Na+ levels affects plasma volume, blood pressure, and ECF and IF volumes

Concentration of Na+
Determines osmolality of ECF; influences excitability of neurons and muscles

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25
regulation of sodium balance
Aldosterone  decreased urinary output; increased blood volume By active reabsorption of remaining Na+ in distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct Also causes increased K+ secretion Aldosterone brings about its effects slowly (hours to days)
26
Baroreceptors
alert the brain of increases in blood volume (hence increased blood pressure), i.e. increased blood sodium Sympathetic nervous system impulses to the kidneys decline Afferent arterioles dilate Glomerular filtration rate rises Sodium and water output increase This phenomenon, called pressure diuresis, decreases blood pressure Drops in systemic blood pressure lead to opposite actions and systemic blood pressure increases Since sodium ion concentration determines fluid volume, baroreceptors can be viewed as "sodium receptors"
27
ANP
Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP) Reduces blood pressure and blood volume by inhibiting: Events that promote vasoconstriction Na+ and water retention Is released in the heart atria as a response to stretch (elevated blood pressure) Has potent diuretic and natriuretic effects Promotes excretion of sodium and water
28
affects a cell's resting membrane potential
Relative ICF-ECF potassium ion concentration Excessive ECF potassium decreases membrane potential Too little K+ causes hyperpolarization and nonresponsiveness
29
Hyperkalemia and Hypokalemia can: Hydrogen ions shift in and out of cells
Disrupt electrical conduction in the heart Lead to sudden death Leads to corresponding shifts in potassium in the opposite direction Interferes with activity of excitable cells
30
Influence of Aldosterone
Aldosterone stimulates potassium ion secretion by principal cells in kidney collecting ducts For each Na+ reabsorbed, a K+ is secreted Increased K+ in the ECF around the adrenal cortex causes: Release of aldosterone >Potassium secretion
31
Ionic calcium in ECF is important for:
Blood clotting Cell membrane permeability Secretory behavior
32
Hypocalcemia: Hypercalcemia:
Hypocalcemia: Increases excitability, causes muscle tetany Hypercalcemia: inhibits neurons and muscle cells; cause heart arrhythmias
33
PTH promotes increase in calcium levels by targeting:
Bones - PTH activates osteoclasts to break down bone matrix Small intestine - PTH enhances intestinal absorption of calcium Kidneys - PTH enhances calcium reabsorption and decreases phosphate reabsorption Calcium reabsorption and phosphate excretion go hand in hand
34
influence of calcitonin
Released in response to rising blood calcium levels Calcitonin is a PTH antagonist, but its contribution to calcium and phosphate homeostasis is minor to negligible
35
Acid-base Balance
pH affects all functional proteins and biochemical reactions, so closely regulated Normal pH of body fluids Arterial blood: pH 7.4 Venous blood and IF fluid: pH 7.35 ICF: pH 7.0 Alkalosis or alkalemia: arterial pH >7.45 Acidosis or acidemia: arterial pH
36
hydrogen ion regulation
Concentration of hydrogen ions is regulated sequentially by: Chemical buffer systems - act within seconds Physiological buffer systems The respiratory center in the brain stem - acts within 1-3 minutes Renal mechanisms - require hours to days to effect pH changes
37
chemical buffer system
: system of one or more compounds that act to resist pH changes when strong acid or base is added Bind H+ if pH drops; release H+ if pH rises Bicarbonate (HCO3- ) buffer system Phosphate buffer system Protein buffer system
38
The most important buffer is
bicarbonate system Adding free H+ (acid gain) drives the reaction to the left Removing free H+ drives the reaction to the right
39
phosphate buffer system
Action nearly identical to bicarbonate buffer Components are: Dihydrogen phosphate (H2PO4–), a weak acid Monohydrogen phosphate (HPO42–), a weak base
40
protein buffer system
Intracellular proteins are most plentiful and powerful buffers; plasma proteins also important Protein molecules can function as both weak acid and weak base When pH rises, carboxyl (COOH) groups release H+ When pH falls, NH2 groups bind H+
41
Chemical buffers cannot eliminate
excess acids or bases from body Lungs and kidneys eliminate excess acid Kidneys eliminate excess base (rarely required) Act more slowly than chemical buffer systems Have more capacity than chemical buffer systems
42
respiratory acidosis
Cause: Hypoventilation | To compensate: Kidney function=increase excretion of H+ or by increased reabsorption of HCO3-
43
respiratory alkalosis
Cause: Hyperventilation | To compensate: Kidney function=decreased H+ excretion or by decreased reabsorption of HCO3-
44
If acid-base imbalance due to malfunction of physiological buffer system, what happens
other one tries to compensate Respiratory system attempts to correct metabolic acid-base imbalances Kidneys attempt to correct respiratory acid-base imbalances
45
Respiratory Acidosis Respiratory Alkalosis Metabolic Acidosis Metabolic Alkalosis
CO2 accumulates in the body ↓ blood pH and ↑ PCO2 CO2 eliminated faster than produced ↑ blood pH and ↓ PCO2 ↓ blood pH and ↓ [HCO3– ] ↑ blood pH and ↑ [HCO3– ]
46
``` Pregnancy Conceptus Gestation period Preembryo embryo fetus ```
Pregnancy: Events that occur from fertilization until the infant is born Conceptus: Developing offspring Gestation period: Last menstrual period to birth Preembryo: Fertilization to 2 weeks old Embryo: 3rd through the 8th week Fetus: 9th week through birth
47
fertilization
: Sperm fuses with an egg & forms a zygote
48
gamete characteristics
Oocyte: Viable for 12-24 hours Sperm: Viable 24-72 hours
49
Fates
ejaculated sperm 1) Leak out, destroyed by acid, fall short, fall prey to uterine phagocytes 2) Reach the uterine tubes!
50
Sperm must undergo what before penetrating the oocyte?
capacitation within the female reproductive tract
51
Ovulated oocyte is encapsulated by
Corona radiata Made of granulosa cells Zona pellucida
52
Acrosomal reaction
Binding of sperm to the zona pellucida triggers the acrosomal reaction Enzymes from the acrosomes many nearby sperm digest holes in the zona pellucida A path is cleared to the oocyte membrane
53
Binding and Fusion
Sperm membrane binds to oocyte sperm-binding receptors Sperm and oocyte membranes fuse allowing sperm contents to enter
54
Block of polysperm
Entry of sperm causes oocyte membrane depolarization and triggers the Cortical Reaction Exocytosis of cortical granules Result: Zona Pelucida hardens Sperm receptors removed from membrane Only one sperm is allowed to penetrate oocyte - monospermy 2 mechanisms ensure monospermy Fast block to polyspermy: Plasma membrane depolarization prevents other sperm from fusing with oocyte Slow block to polyspermy: Cortical granules release enzymes destroying sperm receptors (sperm already bound to receptors detach
55
upon entry of sperm
The secondary oocyte completes meiosis II & Casts out 2nd polar body Fertilization: Swollen pronuclei come together & fuse
56
cleavage
1st cleavage  two daughter cells (blastomeres) Morula: 16+ cell stage (72 hours) Blastocyst: Fluid-filled hollow sphere (100+ cell stage) - composed of: Trophoblast layer (aids placenta formation) Inner cell mass (becomes the embryonic disc)
57
inplantation
Begins 6-7 days after ovulation: When trophoblasts adhere to endometrium Implanted blastocyst surrounded by endometrial cells Process completed by 12th day after ovulation
58
associated hormone production
Corpus luteum: Maintained by human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) so it can produce progesterone & estrogen Placenta: Takes over from corpus luteum (helped by chorion [trophoblast derivitive]) between 2nd & 3rd month & assumes nutrient supply & waste removal duties
59
placenta
Formed from combination of Embryonic trophoblastic tissues & Maternal endometrial tissues Placenta fully formed & functional by end of 3rd month
60
embryonic membranes | amnion
Cells form a transparent membrane filled with amniotic fluid Provides buoyant, protective environment for embryo Helps maintain constant homeostatic temperature Amniotic fluid: From maternal blood (later, fetal urine)
61
embryonic membranes | yolk sac
Cells form a sac on ventral surface of embryo Will forms part of digestive tube Makes earliest RBCs & vessels (source of primordial germ cells)
62
embryonic membranes | allantois
Small outpocketing at caudal end of yolk sac Structural base for umbilical cord (becomes part of urinary bladder)
63
Primary germ layers
primitive tissues from which all body organs develop ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm
64
effects of pregnancy
Anatomical Changes Breasts enlarge & areolae darken, uterus expands, Lordosis is likely, pelvic ligaments & pubic symphysis relax (Typical weight gain: ~29 lbs.) Metabolic Changes Placenta secretes hormones to stimulate breast maturation, ↑maternal metabolism (↑ PTH ensures a positive calcium balance)
65
physiological changes of pregnancy
Physiological Changes GI tract: Morning sickness (↑ estrogen & progesterone) Urinary tract: ↑ urine production (↑ work & pressure) Respiratory: Sometimes Dyspnea (difficult breathing: late term) Cardiovascular system: ↑ blood vol. (25-40%) Maternal venous pressure: Impared in lower limbs --> varicose veins
66
preeclampsia
Insufficient placental blood supply  fetus starved of oxygen Woman  edematous, hypertensive, proteinuria Believed due to immunological abnormalities Correlated with number of fetal cells that enter maternal circulation
67
expulsion stage of labor
Vertex position – head-first Skull dilates cervix; early suctioning allows breathing prior to complete delivery Breech position – buttock-first Delivery more difficult; often forceps required, or C-section (delivery through abdominal and uterine wall incision)
68
extrauterine lifee
1-5 minutes after birth: Infant's physical status is assessed based on five signs (0-2): heart rate, respiration, color, muscle tone, reflexes Apgar score: Total score of above scores (8-10 healthy) First breath: Difficult! - lungs initially collapsed!
69
lactation
Milk from mammary glands (other hormones lead to Prolactin release --> milk production) Colostrum: 1st 2-3 days, (vitamin A, protein, minerals, & IgA antibodies (later:true milk)
70
Stimulation
After birth, milk production is stimulated by the sucking infant, crying (emotional stimulus)
71
Advantages of Breast Milk
Fats & iron better absorbed & a.a.'s better metabolized than a.a.'s of cow's milk Beneficial chemicals: IgA (& other immunoglobulins), complement, lysozyme, interferon Natural laxatives help cleanse bowels of meconium

Anatomy II (7 decks)

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