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Anatomy II > T4 > Flashcards

T4 Flashcards

1
Q

Two main fluid compartments

A

Intracellular Fluid

Extracellular Fluid

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2
Q

Intracellular Fluid

Extracellular Fluid

A
  • about two thirds by volume, contained in cells

consists of two major subdivisions
Plasma - the fluid portion of the blood
Interstitial fluid (IF) - fluid in spaces between cells

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3
Q

universal solvent

A

water

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4
Q

Solutes are classified into>

A

electrolytes and non-electrolytes

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5
Q

electrolytes

A

dissociate into ions in water
inorganic salts, all acids and bases, and some proteins
Electrolytes determine the chemical and physical reactions of fluids
Electrolytes have greater osmotic power than nonelectrolytes
Water moves according to osmotic gradients

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6
Q

non-electrolytes

A

examples include glucose, lipids, creatinine, and urea

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7
Q

electrolyte concentration

A

measure of electrical charges per liter of solution

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8
Q

Extracellular fluids

Intracellular fluids

A

sodium-cation
chloride-anion

potassium-cation
phosphate-anion

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9
Q

compartmental exchange is regulated by what>

A

osmotic and hydrostatic pressures

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10
Q

the only fluid that circulates throughout the body and links external and internal environments

A

plasma

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11
Q

fluid movement between plasma and IF across capillary walls

A

Fluid leaks from arteriole end of capillary, reabsorbed at venule end; lymphatics pick up remaining and return to blood

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12
Q

fluid movement between IF and ICF across cell membrane

A

Two-way osmotic flow of water

Ions move selectively; nutrients, wastes, gases unidirectional

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13
Q

change in solute concentration of any compartment leads to what?

A

net water flow

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14
Q

Water intake sources

Water output sources

A 
Ingested fluid (60%) and solid food (30%)
Metabolic water or water of oxidation (10%)
Urine (60%) and feces (4%)
Insensible losses (28%), sweat (8%)
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15
Q

Increases in plasma osmolality triggers what?

A

thirst and release of antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

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16
Q

drives water seeking

A

Hypothalmic Thirst Center

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17
Q

Influence and Regulation of ADH

A

Water reabsorption in kidney’s collecting ducts is proportional to ADH release

Low ADH levels produce dilute urine and reduced volume of body fluids
High ADH levels produce concentrated urine

Hypothalamic osmoreceptors trigger or inhibit ADH release

Factors that specifically trigger ADH release include: prolonged fever; excessive sweating, vomiting, or diarrhea; severe blood loss; and traumatic burns

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18
Q

Dehydration

A

Water loss exceeds water intake and the body is in negative fluid balance

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19
Q

causes of dehydration

signs and symptoms

A

hemorrhage, severe burns, prolonged vomiting or diarrhea, profuse sweating, water deprivation, and diuretic abuse

cottonmouth, thirst, dry flushed skin, and oliguria (v. low urine production)

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20
Q

hypotonic hydration

A

Renal Insufficiency or an extraordinary amount of water ingested quickly can lead to cellular overhydration, or water intoxication
ECF is diluted - sodium content is normal but excess water is present
The resulting hyponatremia promotes net osmosis into tissue cells, causing swelling
These events must be quickly reversed to prevent severe metabolic disturbances, particularly in neurons
Treated with hypertonic saline

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21
Q

edema

A

Atypical accumulation of fluid in the interstitial space, leading to tissue swelling (not cell swelling)

Caused by anything that 1. increases flow of fluids out of the bloodstream or 2. hinders their return back to the bloodstream
Factors that accelerate fluid loss include:
Increased blood pressure, capillary permeability
Incompetent venous valves, localized blood vessel blockage
Congestive heart failure, hypertension, high blood volume
Hindered fluid return usually reflects an imbalance in colloid osmotic pressures

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22
Q

hypoproteinemia

A

low levels of plasma proteins
Forces fluids out of capillary beds at the arterial ends
Fluids fail to return at the venous ends
Results from protein malnutrition, liver disease, or glomerulonephritis

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23
Q

Blocked (or surgically removed) lymph vessels

A

Cause leaked proteins to accumulate in interstitial fluid

Exert increasing colloid osmotic pressure, which draws fluid from the blood

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24
Q

Sodium

A

Most abundant cation in ECF
Sodium salts in ECF contribute 280 mOsm of total 300 mOsm ECF solute concentration

Only cation exerting significant osmotic pressure
Controls ECF volume and water distribution
Changes in Na+ levels affects plasma volume, blood pressure, and ECF and IF volumes

Concentration of Na+
Determines osmolality of ECF; influences excitability of neurons and muscles

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25
Q

regulation of sodium balance

A

Aldosterone  decreased urinary output; increased blood volume
By active reabsorption of remaining Na+ in distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct

Also causes increased K+ secretion

Aldosterone brings about its effects slowly (hours to days)

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26
Q

Baroreceptors

A

alert the brain of increases in blood volume (hence increased blood pressure), i.e. increased blood sodium
Sympathetic nervous system impulses to the kidneys decline
Afferent arterioles dilate
Glomerular filtration rate rises
Sodium and water output increase
This phenomenon, called pressure diuresis, decreases blood pressure

Drops in systemic blood pressure lead to opposite actions and systemic blood pressure increases

Since sodium ion concentration determines fluid volume, baroreceptors can be viewed as “sodium receptors”

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27
Q

ANP

A

Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP)
Reduces blood pressure and blood volume by inhibiting:
Events that promote vasoconstriction
Na+ and water retention

Is released in the heart atria as a response to stretch (elevated blood pressure)

Has potent diuretic and natriuretic effects
Promotes excretion of sodium and water

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28
Q

affects a cell’s resting membrane potential

A

Relative ICF-ECF potassium ion concentration

Excessive ECF potassium decreases membrane potential
Too little K+ causes hyperpolarization and nonresponsiveness

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29
Q

Hyperkalemia and Hypokalemiacan:

Hydrogen ions shift in and out of cells

A

Disrupt electrical conduction in the heart
Lead to sudden death

Leads to corresponding shifts in potassium in the opposite direction
Interferes with activity of excitable cells

30
Q

Influence of Aldosterone

A

Aldosterone stimulates potassium ion secretion by principal cells in kidney collecting ducts

For each Na+ reabsorbed, a K+ is secreted

Increased K+ in the ECF around the adrenal cortex causes:
Release of aldosterone >Potassium secretion

31
Q

Ionic calcium in ECF is important for:

A

Blood clotting
Cell membrane permeability
Secretory behavior

32
Q

Hypocalcemia:
Hypercalcemia:

A

Hypocalcemia: Increases excitability, causes muscle tetany

Hypercalcemia: inhibits neurons and muscle cells; cause heart arrhythmias

33
Q

PTH promotes increase in calcium levels by targeting:

A

Bones - PTH activates osteoclasts to break down bone matrix

Small intestine - PTH enhances intestinal absorption of calcium

Kidneys - PTH enhances calcium reabsorption and decreases phosphate reabsorption

Calcium reabsorption and phosphate excretion go hand in hand

34
Q

influence of calcitonin

A

Released in response to rising blood calcium levels

Calcitonin is a PTH antagonist, but its contribution to calcium and phosphate homeostasis is minor to negligible

35
Q

Acid-base Balance

A

pH affects all functional proteins and biochemical reactions, so closely regulated
Normal pH of body fluids
Arterial blood: pH 7.4
Venous blood and IF fluid: pH 7.35
ICF: pH 7.0
Alkalosis or alkalemia: arterial pH >7.45
Acidosis or acidemia: arterial pH

36
Q

hydrogen ion regulation

A

Concentration of hydrogen ions is regulated sequentially by:
Chemical buffer systems - act within seconds
Physiological buffer systems
The respiratory center in the brain stem - acts within 1-3 minutes
Renal mechanisms - require hours to days to effect pH changes

37
Q

chemical buffer system

A

: system of one or more compounds that act to resist pH changes when strong acid or base is added

Bind H+ if pH drops; release H+ if pH rises

Bicarbonate (HCO3- ) buffer system
Phosphate buffer system
Protein buffer system

38
Q

The most important buffer is

A

bicarbonate system
Adding free H+ (acid gain) drives the reaction to the left
Removing free H+ drives the reaction to the right

39
Q

phosphate buffer system

A

Action nearly identical to bicarbonate buffer
Components are:
Dihydrogen phosphate (H2PO4–), a weak acid
Monohydrogen phosphate (HPO42–), a weak base

40
Q

protein buffer system

A

Intracellular proteins are most plentiful and powerful buffers; plasma proteins also important
Protein molecules can function as both weak acid and weak base
When pH rises, carboxyl (COOH) groups release H+
When pH falls, NH2 groups bind H+

41
Q

Chemical buffers cannot eliminate

A

excess acids or bases from body

Lungs and kidneys eliminate excess acid
Kidneys eliminate excess base (rarely required)

Act more slowly than chemical buffer systems
Have more capacity than chemical buffer systems

42
Q

respiratory acidosis

A

Cause: Hypoventilation

To compensate: Kidney function=increase excretion of H+ or by increased reabsorption of HCO3-

43
Q

respiratory alkalosis

A

Cause: Hyperventilation

To compensate: Kidney function=decreased H+ excretion or by decreased reabsorption of HCO3-

44
Q

If acid-base imbalance due to malfunction of physiological buffer system, what happens

A

other one tries to compensate

Respiratory system attempts to correct metabolic acid-base imbalances
Kidneys attempt to correct respiratory acid-base imbalances

45
Q

Respiratory Acidosis
Respiratory Alkalosis
Metabolic Acidosis
Metabolic Alkalosis

A

CO2 accumulates in the body
↓ blood pH and ↑ PCO2

CO2 eliminated faster than produced
↑ blood pH and ↓ PCO2

↓ blood pH and ↓ [HCO3– ]

↑ blood pH and ↑ [HCO3– ]

46
Q 
Pregnancy 
Conceptus 
Gestation period
Preembryo
embryo
fetus
A

Pregnancy: Events that occur from fertilization until the infant is born
Conceptus: Developing offspring
Gestation period: Last menstrual period to birth
Preembryo: Fertilization to 2 weeks old
Embryo: 3rd through the 8th week
Fetus: 9th week through birth

47
Q

fertilization

A

: Sperm fuses with an egg & forms a zygote

48
Q

gamete characteristics

A

Oocyte: Viable for 12-24 hours
Sperm: Viable 24-72 hours

49
Q

Fates

A

ejaculated sperm

1) Leak out, destroyed by acid, fall short, fall prey to uterine phagocytes
2) Reach the uterine tubes!

50
Q

Sperm must undergo what before penetrating the oocyte?

A

capacitation within the female reproductive tract

51
Q

Ovulated oocyte is encapsulated by

A

Corona radiata
Made of granulosa cells

Zona pellucida

52
Q

Acrosomal reaction

A

Binding of sperm to the zona pellucida triggers the acrosomal reaction

Enzymes from the acrosomes many nearby sperm digest holes in the zona pellucida

A path is cleared to the oocyte membrane

53
Q

Binding and Fusion

A

Sperm membrane binds to oocyte sperm-binding receptors

Sperm and oocyte membranes fuse allowing sperm contents to enter

54
Q

Block of polysperm

A

Entry of sperm causes oocyte membrane depolarization and triggers the Cortical Reaction
Exocytosis of cortical granules

Result:
Zona Pelucida hardens
Sperm receptors removed from membrane

Only one sperm is allowed to penetrate oocyte - monospermy
2 mechanisms ensure monospermy
Fast block to polyspermy: Plasma membrane depolarization prevents other sperm from fusing with oocyte
Slow block to polyspermy: Cortical granules release enzymes destroying sperm receptors (sperm already bound to receptors detach

55
Q

upon entry of sperm

A

The secondary oocyte completes meiosis II &
Casts out 2nd polar body

Fertilization:
Swollen pronuclei come together & fuse

56
Q

cleavage

A

1st cleavage  two daughter cells (blastomeres)

Morula: 16+ cell stage (72 hours)

Blastocyst: Fluid-filled hollow sphere (100+ cell stage) - composed of:
Trophoblast layer (aids placenta formation)
Inner cell mass (becomes the embryonic disc)

57
Q

inplantation

A

Begins 6-7 days after ovulation: When trophoblasts adhere to endometrium
Implanted blastocyst surrounded by endometrial cells
Process completed by 12th day after ovulation

58
Q

associated hormone production

A

Corpus luteum: Maintained by human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) so it can produce progesterone & estrogen
Placenta: Takes over from corpus luteum (helped by chorion [trophoblast derivitive]) between 2nd & 3rd month & assumes nutrient supply & waste removal duties

59
Q

placenta

A

Formed from combination of Embryonic trophoblastic tissues & Maternal endometrial tissues

Placenta fully formed & functional by end of 3rd month

60
Q

embryonic membranes

amnion

A

Cells form a transparent membrane filled with amniotic fluid

Provides buoyant, protective environment for embryo
Helps maintain constant homeostatic temperature
Amniotic fluid: From maternal blood (later, fetal urine)

61
Q

embryonic membranes

yolk sac

A

Cells form a sac on ventral surface of embryo

Will forms part of digestive tube
Makes earliest RBCs & vessels (source of primordial germ cells)

62
Q

embryonic membranes

allantois

A

Small outpocketing at caudal end of yolk sac

Structural base for umbilical cord (becomes part of urinary bladder)

63
Q

Primary germ layers

A

primitive tissues from which all body organs develop

ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm

64
Q

effects of pregnancy

A

Anatomical Changes
Breasts enlarge & areolae darken, uterus expands, Lordosis is likely, pelvic ligaments & pubic symphysis relax (Typical weight gain: ~29 lbs.)

Metabolic Changes
Placenta secretes hormones to stimulate breast maturation, ↑maternal metabolism (↑ PTH ensures a positive calcium balance)

65
Q

physiological changes of pregnancy

A

Physiological Changes
GI tract: Morning sickness (↑ estrogen & progesterone)

Urinary tract: ↑ urine production (↑ work & pressure)

Respiratory: Sometimes Dyspnea (difficult breathing: late term)

Cardiovascular system: ↑ blood vol. (25-40%)
Maternal venous pressure: Impared in lower limbs –> varicose veins

66
Q

preeclampsia

A

Insufficient placental blood supply  fetus starved of oxygen

Woman  edematous, hypertensive, proteinuria

Believed due to immunological abnormalities
Correlated with number of fetal cells that enter maternal circulation

67
Q

expulsion stage of labor

A

Vertex position – head-first
Skull dilates cervix; early suctioning allows breathing prior to complete delivery

Breech position – buttock-first
Delivery more difficult; often forceps required, or C-section (delivery through abdominal and uterine wall incision)

68
Q

extrauterine lifee

A

1-5 minutes after birth:
Infant’s physical status is assessed based on five signs (0-2): heart rate, respiration, color, muscle tone, reflexes

Apgar score: Total score of above scores (8-10 healthy)

First breath: Difficult! - lungs initially collapsed!

69
Q

lactation

A

Milk from mammary glands (other hormones lead to Prolactin release –> milk production)

Colostrum: 1st 2-3 days, (vitamin A, protein, minerals, & IgA antibodies (later:true milk)

70
Q

Stimulation

A

After birth, milk production is stimulated by the sucking infant, crying (emotional stimulus)

71
Q

Advantages of Breast Milk

A

Fats & iron better absorbed & a.a.’s better metabolized than a.a.’s of cow’s milk

Beneficial chemicals: IgA (& other immunoglobulins), complement, lysozyme, interferon

Natural laxatives help cleanse bowels of meconium

Anatomy II (7 decks)

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