Exam II Anatomy 2 Flashcards

Question

what are the two intrinsic systems of the immune system?

Answer 1

Innate (nonspecific) defense system First - external body membranes (skin and mucosae) Second - antimicrobial proteins, phagocytes, and other cells Inhibit spread of invaders Inflammation most important mechanism Adaptive (specific) defense system Third line of defense attacks specific foreign substances Takes longer to react than innate system

Answer 2

surface barriers chemical barries respiratory system modification

Answer 3

Surface/Physical barriers ward off invading pathogens Skin, mucous membranes, and their secretions Chemical barriers inhibit or destroy microorganisms Acids of skin and stomach Enzymes – lysozymes – kill microorganisms Defensins – antimicrobial peptides – inhibit growth Respiratory system modifications Nose hair coated in mucous Cilia sweep pathogens out of trachea

Answer 4

cells and chemicals

Answer 5

Necessary if microorganisms invade deeper tissues Phagocytes – macrophages, neutrophils Natural killer (NK) cells – kill infected and tumor cells by lysis (not phagocytic) Antimicrobial proteins – interferons (protect uninfected cells) and complement proteins (enhance immune response) Inflammation (macrophages, mast cells, WBCs, and inflammatory chemicals) Fever

Answer 6

Prevents spread of damaging agents Disposes of cell debris and pathogens Encourages repair

Answer 7

``` Redness Heat Swelling Pain (Sometimes 5. Impairment of function) All consequences of  vasodilation and capillary permeability ```

Answer 8

Abnormally high body temperature Caused by Pyrogens secreted by leukocytes and macrophages Increases metabolic rate  faster repair

Answer 9

It is Specific – recognizes and targets specific antigens It is Systemic – not restricted to initial site It has Memory – allows stronger attacks to "known" antigens Two separate but complimentary “systems” Humoral (antibody-mediated) immunity Cellular (cell-mediated) immunity

Answer 10

Substances that provoke an immune response The targets of all adaptive immune responses Both humoral and cellular Most are large molecules not normally found in body (“nonself”) Self-antigens are cell surface protein markers that identify an organism’s own cells as being part of it’s own body Self cells not immunogenic until placed in another organism – as in transfusion reaction or transplant rejection

Answer 11

The parts of an antigen that are immunogenic (stimulate an immune response) These are the “receptors” to which antibodies and lymphocytes bind

Answer 12

1.Lymphocytes produce antibodies 2. Antibodies bind extracellular antigens 3. Targets are extracellular bacteria, fungi, parasites 4. B lymphocytes participate in humor immunity 5. B lymphocytes mature in Bone marrow

Answer 13

1, Lymphocytes attack target cells Directly kill infected cell or Indirectly kill it by alerting other macrophages 2. Targets are intracellular Virus-infected cells, cancer cells i.e. abnormal ‘self’ cells 3. T lymphocytes participate in cellular immunity 4. T lymphocytes mature in Thymus

Answer 14

Helper T cells – initiate the humoral immune response Cytotoxic T cells – directly attack and kill foreign cells Memory T cells – store immunological memory Suppressor T cells – terminate the immune response Antigens-presenting cells (APCs) – engulf antigens and present them on their own cell surface for T cells to recognize

Answer 15

B lymphocytes transform into: Plasma cells – produce antibodies Memory B cells – store immunological memory

Answer 16

4 polypeptide chains linked by disulfide bonds 2 Heavy Chains – long 2 Light Chains - short Variable regions are altered to match each antigens to form two identical antigen-binding sites Constant region remains unaltered – determines antibody classes

Answer 17

Grouped into one of five Ig classes IgD – found on the surfaces of B-cells IgM – responds to antigens in food or bacteria – the first class of antibodies produced during the immune response IgG – attacks bacteria, viruses, and toxins – the only class that crosses the placental barrier IgA – found in exocrine secretions IgE – found in exocrine secretions – integral in inflammatory and allergic responses

Answer 18

Neutralization: they attach to and cover up the toxic portions of bacteria, viruses or toxins Agglutination: clump cells together - immobilizes cells – easier to kill/phagocytize Precipitation: takes soluble antigens out of solution Compliment Fixation: induces lysis of target cell

Answer 19

primary and secondary

Answer 20

occurs when the B-cell and T-cells first encounter a specific antigen Triggers proliferation of the specific B-cell and T-cell populations Produce antibodies for several weeks Individual shows symptoms

Answer 21

occurs when memory B-cells or memory T-cells are activated | Secondary response is faster and shorter in duration than the primary immune response

Answer 22

Pulmonary ventilation, or breathing, consists of two phases Inspiration-gases flow into lungs Expiration-gases exit lungs Breathing is not respiration!

Answer 23

atmospheric and respirtatory pressures

Answer 24

Patm) Pressure exerted by air around us 760 mm Hg at sea level = 1 atmosphere

Answer 25

Neg. resp. pressure is Patm | Zero resp. pressure = Patm

Answer 26

Pressure in alveoli Fluctuates with breathing Always eventually equalizes with Patm

Answer 27

Intrapleural pressure (Pip) Pressure in pleural cavity Fluctuates with breathing Always a neg. pressure (

Answer 28

If Pip = Ppul or Patm  lungs collapse (Ppul – Pip) = Transpulmonary pressure Keeps airways open

Answer 29

Atelectasis (lung collapse) Example: Pneumothorax - air in pleural cavity From either wound in parietal or rupture of visceral pleura Treated by removing air with chest tubes; pleurae heal  lung reinflates

Answer 30

Mechanical processes that cause volume changes in thoracic cavity Volume changes  pressure changes Pressure changes  gases flow to equalize pressure Boyle’s Law Relationship between pressure and volume of a gas Gases fill container; if container size reduced  increased pressure  gas flows out Pressure and volume are inversely proportional

Answer 31

Active process Inspiratory muscles contract Thoracic volume increases  intrapulmonary pressure drops (to 1 mm Hg) Lungs stretched and intrapulmonary volume increases Air flows into lungs, down its pressure gradient, until Ppul = Patm

Answer 32

Quiet expiration is normally a passive process Inspiratory muscles relax Thoracic cavity volume decreases Elastic lungs recoil and intrapulmonary volume decreases Ppul rises (to +1 mm Hg) Air flows out of the lungs down its pressure gradient until Ppul = 0 Note: forced expiration is an active process: it uses abdominal and internal intercostal muscles

Answer 33

The attraction between H2O molecules at gas-liquid interface Resists any force that tends to increase surface area of liquid If alveoli were coated with H2O alone the surface tension would be too strong and they would collapse

Answer 34

Surfactant Detergent-like lipid and protein complex produced by type II alveolar cells Reduces surface tension of alveolar fluid and discourages alveolar collapse Insufficient quantity in premature infants causes infant respiratory distress syndrome  alveoli collapse after each breath

Answer 35

May modify normal respiratory rhythm Most result from reflex action; some voluntary Examples include-cough, sneeze, crying, laughing, hiccups, and yawns

Answer 36

External respiration Internal respiration To understand the above processes, we must first consider The physical properties of gases

Answer 37

Gas mixtures in contact with liquid Each gas dissolves in proportion to its partial pressure At equilibrium, partial pressures in two phases will be equal (i.e. dissolved and undissolved) Amount of each gas that will dissolve depends on its solubility CO2 20 times more soluble in water than O2

Answer 38

``` Oxygen (O2) transport Carbon dioxide (CO2) transport ```

Answer 39

98% of oxygen is bound to hemoglobin and the other 2% is dissolved in plasma Because oxygen is not easily dissolve in water, hemoglobin binds O2 and dramatically increased the amount of blood in the plasma Oxygen can travel (a. ) bound to hemoglobin or (b. ) dissolved in plasma

Answer 40

Without hemoglobin very little oxygen would dissolve into the plasma- an amount that is not sufficient for cell demand In the presence of hemoglobin a higher concentration can be dissolved in blood when pressure equilibrium is reached

Answer 41

Loading and unloading of O2 facilitated by change in shape of Hb As O2 binds, Hb affinity for O2 increases As O2 is released, Hb affinity for O2 decreases Fully saturated (100%) if all four heme groups carry O2 Partially saturated when one to three hemes carry O2

Answer 42

Dissolved: 7% - although CO2 is more soluble in plasma than oxygen only a small amount is dissolved in it. Converted to bicarbonate ions: 70% - an enzyme converts the CO2 in RBCs into bicarbonate Bound to hemoglobin: 23% - Hemoglobin also binds H+ - hemoblogin acts as a buffer binding H+ to resists pH changes Hb and CO2: carbaminohemoglobin – formed when CO2 and hemoglobin bind, it decreases affinity for O2

Answer 43

Changes in respiratory rate and depth affect blood pH Slow, shallow breathing  increased CO2 in blood drop in pH Rapid, deep breathing  decreased CO2 in blood  rise in pH Changes in ventilation can adjust pH when disturbed by metabolic factors

Answer 44

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) Irreversible decrease in ability to force air out of lungs Caused by 2 conditions: Emphysema Permanent enlargement of alveoli; destruction of alveolar walls; decreased lung elasticity Chronic bronchitis Chronic excessive mucus  Obstructed airways Treatment: bronchodilators, corticosteroids, oxygen, sometimes surgery Asthma Active inflammation of airways causing airway thickening and bronchospasms Tuberculosis (TB) Infectious disease caused by bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis Cystic fibrosis Abnormal, viscous mucus clogs passageways  bacterial infections Lung cancer Leading cause of cancer deaths in North America