Anatomy II - Exam I Flashcards

1
Q

What is blood?

A

fluid connective tissue

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2
Q

Blood Composition

A

fluid connective tissue
plasma
formed elements

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3
Q

Plasma

A

non living fluid matrix

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4
Q

Formed elements

A

living blood cells suspended in plasma

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5
Q

What are the formed elements?

A

erythrocytes
leukocytes
platelets

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6
Q

Erythrocytes

A

red blood cells

no nuclei or organelles

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7
Q

Leukocytes

A

white blood cells

complete cells

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8
Q

Platelets

A

thrombocytes

cell fragments

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9
Q

What is hematocrit?

A

percent of blood volume that is RBCs

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10
Q

Functions of blood

A

Transport= oxygen and nutrients, wastes, hormones

Regulation= temperature and pH

Protection = clot formation and immune system

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11
Q

Plasma Proteins

A

Albumins
Globulins
Fibrinogen
Transferrin

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12
Q

Source and function of Albumins

A

Liver

Colloid osmotic pressure of plasma
carriers for various substances

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13
Q

Source and function of Globulins

A

Liver and lymphoid tissue

Clotting factors, enzymes, antibodies, carriers for various substances

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14
Q

Source and function of Fribrinogen

A

Liver

Forms fibrin threads essential to blood clottting

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15
Q

Source and function of Transferrin

A

Lover and other tissues

Ion transport

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16
Q

Structure of Erythrocytes

A

Biconcave discs
lots of hemoglobin
flexible to fit through narrow capillaries

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17
Q

Function of Erythrocytes

A

respiratory gas transport

hemoglobin for gas transport

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18
Q

Hemoglobin Structure

A

Globin- 4 polypeptide chains

Heme- pigment bonded to each globin chain, central iron atom binds one O2,

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19
Q

Each Hb molecule can transport

A

four O2

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20
Q

Hb reversibly binds

A

O2 and CO2 to a lesser extent

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21
Q

Describe Hematopoietic stem cells

A

Give rise to all formed elements

Hormones and growth factors push cell toward specific pathway of blood cell development

Committed cells cannot change

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22
Q

New blood cells enter

A

blood sinusoids

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23
Q

What is Erythropoiesis
and
Describe the process

A

Red Blood Cell Production

HSC transforms into proerythroblast
Ribosomes synthesized
Hemoglobin synthesized; iron accumulates
Ejection of nucleus; formation of reticulocyte (young RBC)

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24
Q

HSC transforms into what?/

A

pro erythroblast

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25
A young RBC
reticulocyte
26
Balance between RBC production and destruction depends on?
- Hormonal controls -Erythropoietin (EPO): Released by kidneys (some from liver) in response to hypoxia Rapid maturation of committed marrow cells Abused by endurance athletes; banned by WADA -Adequate supplies of iron, amino acids, and B vitamins required
27
What are the causes of hypoxia?
- Decreased RBC numbers due to hemorrhage or increased destruction - Insufficient hemoglobin per RBC (e.g., iron deficiency) - Reduced availability of O2 (e.g., high altitudes)
28
What is the life span of Erythrocytes?
100-120 days
29
Describe the destruction of erthrocytes?
Life Span Macrophages engulf dying RBS in spleen Heme and globin are separated
30
Described what happens when heme and globin are separated
Iron: - Stored in cells as ferritin and hemosiderin Transported in blood bound to the protein transferrin Heme: degraded to yellow pigment bilirubin Liver secretes bilirubin (in bile) into intestines Degraded to pigment urobilinogen Excreted as stercobilin Globin: metabolized into amino acids - Released into circulation
31
What are the Erythrocyte Disorders?
Anemia
32
Anemia
decreased RBCs or hemoglobin Blood has abnormally low O2-carrying capacity Blood O2 levels cannot support normal metabolism
33
The three causes/types of Anemia
Blood loss Low RBC production High RBC destruction
34
Blood Loss : Anemia Cause
1. Hemorrhagic anemia Rapid blood loss (e.g., stab wound) Treated by blood transfusion 2. Chronic hemorrhagic anemia Slight but persistent blood loss Hemorrhoids, bleeding ulcer Primary problem treated
35
Low RBC Production
1. Iron-deficiency anemia Caused by hemorrhagic anemia, low iron intake, or impaired absorption 2 .Pernicious anemia Autoimmune disease - destroys stomach mucosa – unable to absorb Vitamin B12 Vegetarians – low B12 in diet 3. Renal anemia Lack of EPO – kidney disease 4. Aplastic anemia Destruction or inhibition of red marrow by drugs, chemicals, radiation, viruses
36
High RBC Destruction
1. Hemolytic anemias Premature RBC lysis due to: Hb abnormalities, incompatible transfusions or infections 2. Thalassemias One globin chain absent or faulty Found in people of Mediterranean ancestry 3. Sickle-cell anemia Genetic disease resulting in one amino acid wrong in a globin beta chain
37
Describe Sickle Cell Anemia
Emerged in people of Sub-Saharan Africa and their descendants 1. Malaria kills 1 million each year 2. Sickle-cell gene One copy  Sickle-cell trait; milder disease; better chance to survive malaria Two copies  Sickle-cell anemia Many RBCs are crescent shaped (and spikey, as you will see in the lab), rupture easily Poor O2 delivery; pain
38
Function of Leukocytes
Function in defense against disease Can leave capillaries via diapedesis Move through tissue spaces by ameboid motion and positive chemotaxis
39
Types of Leukocytes
Granulocytes and Agranulocytes
40
Granulocytes
Visible cytoplasmic granules | Neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils
41
Agranulocytes
No visible cytoplasmic granules Lymphocytes, monocytes Decreasing abundance in blood Never let monkeys eat bananas
42
Types of Granulocytes
Neutrophils Eosinophils Basophils
43
Neutrophils
Most common WBCs contain hydrolytic enzymes or defensins 3-6 lobes in nucleus; twice size of RBCs Phagocytize bacteria
44
Eosinophils
Red/Orange-staining granules Bilobed nucleus Digest parasitic worms Role in allergies, asthma and immune response
45
Basophils
Rarest WBCs with large purple granules | Granules contain histamine - inflammatory chemical that acts as vasodilator
46
Types of Agranulocytes
Lymphocytes and Monocytes
47
Lymphocytes
2nd most common WBC Large, dark-purple, circular nuclei with thin rim of blue cytoplasm Mostly found in lymph nodes and spleen Two types T lymphocytes (T cells) act against virus-infected cells and tumor cells B lymphocytes (B cells) give rise to plasma cells, which produce antibodies
48
Monocytes
Largest WBC U- or kidney-shaped nuclei Leave circulation, enter tissues, and differentiate into macrophages Activate lymphocytes to mount an immune response
49
Leukopoiesis
Production of WBCs Stimulated by 2 types of chemical messengers: Interleukins and Colony-stimulating factors (CSFs)
50
Name the Leukocyte Disorders
Leukopenia Leukemia – Cancer Infectious Mononucleosis (Mono)
51
Infectious Mononucleosis (Mono)
Highly contagious viral disease caused by transmission of Epstein-Barr virus in saliva
52
overproduction of abnormal WBCs
Leukemia – Cancer
53
Abnormally low WBC count—drug induced
Leukopenia
54
Thrombocytes
Cytoplasmic fragments of megakaryocytes Form temporary platelet plug that helps seal breaks in blood vessels Formation regulated by thrombopoietin Granules contain substances like platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)
55
Hemostasis
Fast series of reactions for stoppage of bleeding Requires clotting factors, and substances released by platelets and injured tissues Three steps Vascular spasm Platelet plug formation Coagulation (blood clotting)
56
What are the three phases of coagulation?
Prothrombin activator formed in both intrinsic and extrinsic pathways Prothrombin converted to enzyme thrombin Thrombin catalyzes fibrinogen  fibrin
57
Describe Clot Retraction
Stabilizes clot Actin and myosin in platelets contract Contraction pulls on fibrin strands, squeezing serum from clot Draws ruptured blood vessel edges together
58
Vessel Repair
Vessel is healing as clot retraction occurs Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) stimulates division of smooth muscle cells and fibroblasts to rebuild blood vessel wall Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) stimulates endothelial cells to multiply and restore endothelial lining Fibrinolysis Removes unneeded clots after healing
59
What are the disorders of Hemostasis ?
Thromboembolic disorders: undesirable clot formation Bleeding disorders: abnormalities that prevent normal clot formation Disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) Involves both types of disorders
60
What are the Thromboembolic Conditions?
Thrombus: clot that develops and persists in unbroken blood vessel May block circulation leading to tissue death Embolus: thrombus freely floating in bloodstream Embolism: embolus obstructing a vessel E.g., pulmonary and cerebral emboli Risk factors – atherosclerosis*, inflammation, slowly flowing blood or blood stasis from immobility
61
What are the Anticoagulant Drugs?
Aspirin Antiprostaglandin that inhibits thromboxane A2 Heparin Anticoagulant used clinically for pre- and postoperative cardiac care Warfarin Used for those prone to atrial fibrillation Interferes with action of vitamin K Dabigatran directly inhibits thrombin
62
Hemophilia
``` Includes several similar hereditary bleeding disorders affecting different clotting factors Hemophilia A(most common), B and C ``` Symptoms include prolonged bleeding, especially into joint cavities Treated with plasma transfusions and injection of missing factors Increased hepatitis and HIV risk
63
Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation
Clotting causes bleeding Widespread clotting blocks intact blood vessels Severe bleeding occurs because residual blood unable to clot Occurs as pregnancy complication; in septicemia, or incompatible blood transfusions
64
Transfusions
Whole-blood transfusions used when blood loss rapid and substantial Packed red cells (plasma and WBCs removed) transfused to restore oxygen-carrying capacity Transfusion of incompatible blood can be fatal
65
Human Blood Groups Important Terms
Agglutination – clumping together of RBC Agglutinogens – Antigens or surface markers on RBC cell membrane that are bound by antibodies Agglutinins – Antibodies that recognize and bind the antigens and cause agglutination
66
Human Blood Groups
RBC membranes possess surface glycoprotein antigens Anything perceived as foreign; generates an immune response agglutinogens Mismatched transfused blood (e.g. type A blood given to person with type B) perceived as foreign May be agglutinated and destroyed; can be fatal Presence or absence of each antigen is used to classify blood cells into different groups Antigens of ABO and Rhesus blood groups cause vigorous transfusion reactions
67
Type A Group
has only A agglutinogens | and Anti-B agglutinins – will agglutinate B or AB blood cells
68
Type B Group
Has only B agglutinogens | and Anti-A agglutinins – will agglutinate A or AB blood cells
69
Type AB Group
Universal Recipient | Has A and B agglutinogens
70
Type O
Universal Donor Has no A or B agglutinogens – won’t be agglutinated by recipient and A and B agglutinins Universal Donor Has no A or B agglutinogens – won’t be agglutinated by recipient and A and B agglutinins
71
Rh Blood Groups
Rh+ indicates presence of D antigen 85% Americans Rh+ Anti-Rh antibodies(agglutinins) are not spontaneously formed in Rh– individuals Anti-Rh antibodies form if Rh– individual receives Rh+ blood, or Rh– mother carries a Rh+ fetus Second exposure to Rh+ blood will result in typical transfusion reaction
72
Homeostatic Imbalance: Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn
Also called erythroblastosis fetalis Only occurs in Rh– mom with Rh+ fetus Rh– mom exposed to Rh+ blood of fetus during delivery of first baby – baby healthy Mother synthesizes anti-Rh antibodies Second pregnancy Mom's anti-Rh antibodies cross placenta and destroy RBCs of Rh+ baby Baby treated with prebirth transfusions and exchange transfusions after birth RhoGAM serum containing anti-Rh can prevent Rh– mother from becoming sensitized
73
Transfusion Reactions
Occur if mismatched blood infused Donor's cells Attacked by recipient's plasma agglutinins Agglutinate and clog small vessels Rupture and release hemoglobin into bloodstream Result in Diminished oxygen-carrying capacity Diminished blood flow beyond blocked vessels Hemoglobin in kidney tubules  renal failure
74
Before Transfusion
Blood typing Mixing RBCs with antibodies against its agglutinogen(s) causes clumping of RBCs Done for ABO and for Rh factor Cross matching Mix recipient's serum with donor RBCs Mix recipient's RBCs with donor serum To see if agglutination occur in both cases