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Anatomy II > Final > Flashcards

Final Flashcards

1
Q

Stomach Mucosa

A

Simple columnar epithelium composed of mucous cells
Dotted with gastric pits  gastric glands
Gastric glands produce gastric juice

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2
Q

Gastric pits

A

cells at the base of the gastric pits divide and produce new epithelial cells

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3
Q

Glandular cells

A

Mucous cells – secrete mucus
Parietal cells - secrete hydrochloric acid and intrinsic factor
Chief cells – secrete pepsinogen

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4
Q

Produce the most gastric juice

A

glands in fundus and body

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5
Q

HCL acid

A

makes the stomach acidic
Activates pepsin
Denatures proteins
Destroys microorganisms

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6
Q

Pepsin

A

– enzyme that splits proteins

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7
Q

Intrinsic factor

A

aids in the absorption of vitamin B12

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8
Q

Protection of the stomach

A

Mucous coat – produces a highly alkaline mucus
Epithelial cell replacement – every 3 to 6 days
Tight junctions between the epithelial cells – prevent gastric juice from seeping between the cells.

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9
Q

Gastric Phase Regulation

A

Mucous coat – produces a highly alkaline mucus
Epithelial cell replacement – every 3 to 6 days
Tight junctions between the epithelial cells – prevent gastric juice from seeping between the cells.

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10
Q

Neural and Hormonal Control of Gastric Secretion

A 
Neural Control
Vagus nerve stimulation  secretion 
Sympathetic stimulation  secretion 
Hormonal control largely gastrin
 Enzyme and HCl secretion 
Most small intestine secretions are gastrin antagonists
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11
Q

Bile Composition

A

Bile salts – aid in digestion
Emulsify fats
Aid in the absorption of fatty acids, cholesterol, and fat-soluble vitamin D

Bile pigments – give it its green color; results from the breakdown of red blood cells

Cholesterol – used to produce bile salts

Electrolytes

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12
Q

Function of Pancreas

A 
Secrete enzymes that breakdown
carbohydrates
Fats
Proteins
nucleic acids

Pancreatic juice also is high in bicarbonate ions – neutralize the contents coming from the stomach.

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13
Q

Regulation of pancreatic secretion

A

Parasympathetic impulses – increase secretion
Hormones
Secretin – released in response to the acid in chyme
Cholecystokinin – released in response to the presence of fats and proteins present in chyme

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14
Q

Small Intestine

A

Major organ of digestion and absorption
2-4 m long; from pyloric sphincter to ileocecal valve
Subdivisions
Duodenum (retroperitoneal)
Jejunum (attached posteriorly by mesentery)
Ileum (attached posteriorly by mesentery

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15
Q

Structural Modifications of Small Intestine

A

Increase surface area of proximal part for nutrient absorption
Circular folds
Villi
Microvilli

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16
Q

Microvilli

A

contain enzymes for carbohydrate and protein digestion

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17
Q

Chemotherapy targets rapidly dividing cells

A

Kills cancer cells

Kills rapidly dividing GI tract epithelium  nausea, vomiting, diarrhea

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18
Q

Intestinal Secretions

A

Mucus – protects against acidity

Intestinal juice – watery fluid that is used for nutrient absorption
Slightly alkaline; isotonic with blood plasma

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19
Q

Functions of large intestines

A

Little or no digestive functions
Absorbs water and electrolytes
Forms and stores feces
Secretes mucus – need for lubrication

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20
Q

Appendix

A

Bacterial storehouse  recolonizes gut when necessary

Twisted  enteric bacteria accumulate and multiply

21
Q

Proteins

A 
Uses in Body
Structural materials
Keratin (skin); collagen and elastin (connective tissue); muscle proteins
Functional molecules
Enzymes, some hormones

Fuel
Amino acids can be burned for energy

22
Q

Use of amino acids

A

All-or-none rule
All amino acids needed must be present for protein synthesis to occur; if not all present, amino acids used for energy
Adequacy of caloric intake
Protein is used as fuel if insufficient carbohydrate or fat available

23
Q

Nitrogen Balance
Positive Nitrogen Balance
Negative Nitrogen Balance

A

Nitrogen balance
Rate of protein synthesis equals rate of breakdown and loss
Positive nitrogen balance
synthesis exceeds breakdown (normal in children, pregnant women, tissue repair)
Negative nitrogen balance
breakdown exceeds synthesis (e.g., stress, burns, infection, injury, poor dietary proteins, starvation)

24
Q

Hormonal controls of AA’s

A

Anabolic hormones (GH, sex hormones) accelerate protein synthesis and growth

Adrenal glucocorticoids (released during stress)  protein breakdown; conversion of amino acids to glucose

25
Q

Vitamins

A 
Organic compounds 
Crucial in helping body use nutrients 
Most function as coenzymes
Vitamins D (skin), some B and K synthesized by intestinal bacteria; beta-carotene (carrots) converted in body  vitamin A
The rest must be ingested
26
Q

Types of vitamins

A 
Water-soluble vitamins
B complex and C are absorbed with water
B12 absorption requires intrinsic factor
Not stored in the body 
Any not used within one hour – excreted

Fat-soluble vitamins
A, D, E, and K absorbed with lipid digestion products
Stored in body, except for vitamin K

27
Q

Minerals

A

Inorganic molecules
Seven required in moderate amounts
Calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, sodium, chlorine, and magnesium
Others required in trace amounts
Work with nutrients to ensure proper body functioning
Uptake and excretion balanced to prevent toxic overload

28
Q

harden bone

A

Calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium salts

29
Q

essential for oxygen binding to hemoglobin

A

iron

30
Q

necessary for thyroid hormone synthesis

A

iodine

31
Q

major electrolytes in blood

A

sodium and chloride

32
Q

Metabolism

A

Metabolism - biochemical reactions inside cells involving nutrients
Two types of reactions
Anabolism - Amino acids  proteins
Catabolism - Proteins  amino acids

33
Q

Cellular Respiration

A

Catabolism of food fuels  capture of energy to form ATP in cells

Goal  trap chemical energy in ATP
Energy also stored in glycogen and fats
Oxidation of food for fuel
Step by step removal of pairs of hydrogen atoms (and electron pairs) from substrates  only CO2 left
Includes glycolysis (in cytoplasm) and Krebs cycle, oxidative phosphorylation (both in the mitochondria)

34
Q

Complete glucose catabolism requires three pathways

A

Glycolysis - cytoplasm

Krebs cycle – mitochondrial matrix

Electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation – inner mitochondrial membrane

35
Q

Greater energy yield than glucose

A

lipid metabolism

36
Q

Fatty acid Pathway

A

undergo beta oxidation in mitochondria

products enter Krebs Cycle

37
Q

Lipogenesis

A

Triglyceride Synthesis
When dietary glycerol and fatty acids not needed for energy
Fat storage

38
Q

Lipolysis

A

Triglyceride Breakdown
Reverse of lipogenesis
Stored fat broken down to glycerol and fatty acids for fuel
Oxaloacetate needed for complete oxidation of fat
Without oxaloacetate, acetyl CoA converted to ketone bodies (ketones) = Ketogenesis

39
Q

Nutrient pools

A

AA, Carbohydrate, Fats pool

40
Q

Absorptive State

A

Nutrients stored
Glucose converted to glycogen or fat in liver
Triglycerides formed for fat storage
Excess amino acids stored as fat in liver

41
Q

Postabsorptive State

A 
Intestines are empty
Goal - maintain blood glucose between meals
Glycogenolysis in liver
Glycogenolysis in skeletal muscle
Lipolysis in adipose tissues and liver
Glycerol used for gluconeogenesis in liver
Catabolism of cellular protein
Major source during prolonged fasting
42
Q

Functions of Cholesterol

A

The molecule forms the basis of bile salts, steroid hormones, and vitamin D structure
Is a major component of plasma membranes

43
Q

Lipoproteins

A

Transport water-insoluble cholesterol and triglycerides in blood
Contain triglycerides, phospholipids, cholesterol, and protein
Higher percentage of lipids  lower density, hence VLDLs, LDLs, HDLs

44
Q

HDL
LDL
VDL

A

High protein content Transport excess cholesterol from peripheral tissues to liver to be broken down and secreted into bile – GOOD!
High HDL thought to protect against heart disease

Cholesterol richTransport cholesterol to peripheral tissues for membranes, storage, or hormone synthesis – BAD!
High LDL causes cholesterol deposits in vessels

Triglycerides Transport triglycerides from liver to peripheral tissues (mostly adipose)

45
Q

Saturated fatty acids

A

BAD!
Stimulate liver synthesis of cholesterol
Inhibit cholesterol excretion from body

46
Q

Unsaturated

A

GOOD!
Enhance excretion of cholesterol
Enhance cholesterol catabolism to bile salts

47
Q

Tidal Volume
Inspiratory Reserve Vol
Expiratpry Reserve Vol
Residual vol

A

Tidal volume: volume breathed in and out at rest
Inspiratory reserve volume: volume forcefully inhaled following at rest breathing
Expiratory reserve volume: volume forcefully exhaled following at rest breathing
Residual volume (RV): volume that cannot be exhaled
Fills the Dead Space

48
Q

Partial Pressure

A

Pressure exerted by each gas in mixture

Directly proportional to its percentage in mixture

49
Q

Henry’s Law

A

Gas mixtures in contact with liquid
Each gas dissolves in proportion to its partial pressure
At equilibrium, partial pressures in two phases will be equal (i.e. dissolved and undissolved)
Amount of each gas that will dissolve depends on its solubility
CO2 20 times more soluble in water than o2

Anatomy II (7 decks)

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