T1: Blood Physiology (Part 1) Flashcards
1
Q
How is the health status of an animal analysed?
A
- blood morphological parameters
- biochemical examination
2
Q
What are the 4 main components of blood?
A
- plasma
- red blood cells (erythrocytes)
- white blood cells (leukocytes)
- platelets
3
Q
What are the functions of blood?
A
- TRANSPORT: transporting oxygen and nutrients
- THERMOREGULATION: homeostasis
- IMMUNE DEFENCE: forming blood clots; carrying cells and antibodies
4
Q
What does blood supply and remove from the body? In what form?
What does it regulate by doing gas exchange?
A
supply: oxygen
remove: carbon dioxide, in the form of carbonic acid
gas exchange= acid-base homeostasis
5
Q
What is blood? What is plasma?
A
connective tissue made up of:
- 45% cells
- 55% blood plasma (extracellular fluid)
6
Q
What is plasma? What does it contain?
A
Plasma: matrix of blood
- 90% water
- dissolved gases
- nutrients
- wastes
- salts
- proteins
- inorganic substances
- organic substances
7
Q
What volume does blood occupy of body mass?
A
6-11%
8
Q
What is blood volume affected by? What animals have lower blood volume?
A
- body size
- age
- sex
- physical fitness
- nutritional status
- lactation stage
- pregnancy stage
FAT ANIMALS = LOW blood volume
9
Q
What are anticoagulants?
A
- blood thinners
- chemical substances that prevent or reduce coagulation of blood, prolonging clotting time.
10
Q
What is the method called in which blood is seperated? What is it seperated from?
A
- centrifugation
- cell fragments are seperated from the liquid intercellular matrix
11
Q
Explain the centrifugation of blood.
A
formed elements are heavier than the liquid matrix –> packed at the bottom of the tube
top: yellow, plasma (55% blood volume)
middle: thin, white layer: buffy coat
bottom: packed cell volume (PCV)/hematocrit
12
Q
What is the bottom of the tube called in centrifugation?
A
PCV (packed cell volume)
hematocrit
13
Q
What forms the middle layer of centrifuged blood?
A
“Buffy coat”:
- white blood cells
- platelets
14
Q
Explain the 3 layers formed through blood centrifugation.
A
top:
- yellow
- liquid
- PLASMA
middle:
- white
- thin
- BUFFY COAT (white blood cells and platelets)
bottom:
- PCV (packed cell volume) / hematocrit
- red blood cells
15
Q
What is blood plasma composed of?
A
- 90% water
- 6-8% plasma proteins
- electrolytes
- nutrients
- waste
- dissolved gases
- hormones
16
Q
What is the function of plasma proteins?
A
- maintain osmotic pressure
- regulate blood pH
- bind to transporting proteins
- functions of the immune system (immunoglobins)
- blood coagulation (fibrinogen)
17
Q
What are the major types of proteins present in blood plasma?
A
3:
- albumin
- globulin
- fibrinogen
18
Q
What is the function of albumins? What percentage of blood plasma do they constitute?
A
- 60%
- osmotic pressure of plasma
- transport lipids and steroid hormones
19
Q
What is the function of globulins? What percentage of blood plasma do they constitute?
A
- 35%
- transport ions, hormones, and lipids
- immune function
20
Q
What is the function of fibrinogen? What percentage of blood plasma do they constitute?
A
- 4%
- clotting system
- converted to insoluble fibrin
21
Q
State, in order of decreasing concentration, the different proteins rpesent in blood plasma.
A
albumin > globulin > fibrinogen
22
Q
What method is used to seperate serum proteins?
A
electrophoresis
23
Q
What is serum?
A
blood plasma without clotting factors (no fibrinogen)!
24
Q
How is blood serum prepared?
A
- blood without anticoagulant put into tube
- incubated, room temperature, 30-45 minutes (no longer than 60 mins)
- centrifuged for 15 mins
- stored at -80*C
25
How are serum samples prepared for ELISA Kits?
- whole blood **without anticoagulants**
- **room temperature** for **20 mins**
- **centrifuged** for **10 mins** at **3.000** rpm
- stored at **-80*C**
26
What do erythrocytes lack in mammals?
a nucleus
27
What is a red blood cell? Other name? Shape? Function? What is it characterised with?
- name: erythrocytes
- shape: spherical/oval shaped cells
- function: oxygen carrying capacity of blood
- characterised: heamoglobin (Hb) pigment presence
28
What is heamoglobin? Abbreviation? Function? Composition?
Abbreviation: Hb g/L
Function: transport of oxygen (lungs to cells)
Composition: globin (protein part) and 4 heam groups (Hb); each containing a central iron atom
29
What is heamoglobin referred to as, when bound to oxygen?
What is heamoglobin referred to as, when unbound?
oxyheamoglobin
deoxyheamoglobin
30
What gived blood its colour? What does the colour depend on?
Heam gives blood its colour.
Colour depends on saturation
(fully saturated = 4 oxygen molecules = red;
unsaturated = 0 oxygen molecules = blue)
31
Where are red blood cells destroyed?
in the liver and spleen
32
What does the surface of red blood cells contain? What are they? What are their functions?
**GLYCOPROTEINS**:
- **antigenic**
- specific to the individual
33
What antibody-like substances does blood plasma contain?
**agglutinins**
34
What is agglutination?
mixing of RBC with the blood of another individual causes the plasma agglutins and RBC glycoproteins to bind together.
35
What antigens are present in blood?
- **glycoproteins** (on RBC)
- **agglutins** (in blood plasma)
36
Where are RBC made? What is their average lifespan? What pigment do they contain?
- made in bone marrow
- lifespan: 120 days (shorter in juvenile animals compared to adult animals)
- pigment: heamoglobin
37
State the average life span of RBC in different animal species.
cat: 70 days
dog: 120 days
pig: 85 days
goat: 125 days
sheep: 150 days
cattle: 160 days
horse: 145 days
38
How are RBC broken down? Location?
LIVER, SPLEEN, BONE MARROW:
- 90% of erythrocytes are phagocytised by macrophages
CIRCULATION:
- 10% of erythrocytes
39
State the composition of heamoglobin.
large protein
- 4 polypeptide chains
- 4 heam groups
- 4 iron atoms (oxygen attaches)
40
What are the three types of heamoglobin?
1. Embryonic (HbE)
2. Fetal (HbF)
3. Adult (HbA)
41
When are the differnet types of heamoglobin present? What is their major difference?
embryonic Hb: present in the early fetal development stages
fetal Hb: higher oxygen affinity than adult Hb
adult Hb: shortly after birth
42
State the differences in heamoglobin of different species.
dogs: no HbE and HbF
horses: no HbE, HbF=HbA
pig: HbF=HbA
43
How much oxygen does 1g of heamoglobin bind?
1.34g
44
What conditions control the ability of heamoglobin to bind to oxygen?
- **partial pressure of O2**
- temperature
- pH
- CO2 levels
45
What is methemoglobin? How does it form? What is cyanosis? What is methemoglobinemia?
- Hb iron is oxidized (**Fe2+ --> Fe3+**)
- cannot carry O2 + blue colour (**cyanosis**)
- converted to methemoglobin reductase
- methemoglobinemia: Met-Hb > 1.5%
46
What is carboxyhemoglobin? What compound? What happens?
Hb + CO --> cherry skin colour, mucous membranes
- CO has 200-250 times greater affinity for O2 than Hb
- CO decreases functional Hb concentration
- CO poisoning --> anemia
47
What do veterinarians have to do to piglets once born?
piglets are born with **insufficient iron** in blood.
- iron injections on the 3rd day to prevent anemia
48
What is needed for red blood cells to dump CO2?
carbonic anhydrase
49
How is erythropoiesis controlled?
- **testosterons** (stimulates EPO release)
- **adrenal cortical steroids** and **ACTH** (stimulated EPO production) (large dose: inhibitory)
50
What is hematocrit? How can one get it? How is it defined? What does it depend on?
- the **portion** of blood made up of erythrocytes
- bottom of tube after **centrifugation**
- defined as the **percentage** of whole blood made up of erythrocytes
- depends on: *sex* and *environemntal conditions*
51
What are the different conditions called based on the amount of blood hematocrit?
normal: normal
too little: anaemia
too much: polycythemia
52
What is the normal packed cell volume for rats and mice?
rat: 36-54%
mouse: 39-49%
53
Where does erythrocyte degredation usually ocur? What happens?
location: spleen
occurance: loss of function, swelling, membrane fragility
phagocytosis --> heamoglobin (heam + globin)
54
Explain what happens to heamoglobin following phagocytosis.
heamoglobin:
**heam**: --> biliverdin --> bilirubin --> exreted into blood stream to bind to albumin --> **bile** (*liver*) --> *gastrointestinal tract*
**iron**: insoluble ferritin in the liver --> **erythropoiesis** (*bone marrow*)
**globin**: --> hydrolysed to **amino acids**
55
What are leukocytes differenciated into? Based on what?
1) Granulocytes
2) Agranulocytes
based on structural differences
56
What are the different types of leukocytes? What are their functions?
**Lymphocyte**: immune response
**Monocyte**: phagocytosis
**Eosinophil**: break down blood clots, kill parasites
**Basophil**: synthesise and store histamine and heparine
**Neutrophil**: phagocytosis
57
What are the different types of lymphocytes? What are their functions?
**cytotoxic T cells**: *kill* virus unfected and damaged *cells*
**helper T cells**: *help* cytotoxic T cells and B cells in their immune functions
**B cells**: *produce antibodies*
58
Compare and contrast T and B cells.
origin:
maturation:
-lived:
mobility:
complement receptors:
surface Ig:
antibody synthesis:
effector:
**T cells:**
origin: bone marrow
maturation: thymus
-lived: long-lived
mobility: highly mobile
complement receptors: no
surface Ig: no
antibody synthesis: no
effector: cellular and humoral
B cells:
origin: bone marrow
maturation: bone marrow, bursa in birds
-lived: short-lived/long-lived
mobility: fairly mobile/stationary
complement receptors: yes
surface Ig: yes
antibody synthesis: yes
effector: humoral only
59
What types of leukocytes are phagocytic What do they do?
monocytes
neutrophils
- function: protect the body by fighting the bacterial invaders
60
What is puss?
when phagocytic white blood cells (monocytes/neutrophils) eat bacteria, some die.
--> pus
61
What are leucocytes? What do lymphocytes do?
Leukocytes- psudopodes
Lymphocytes: take care of antibody production and take cells that destroy substances
62
Where are blood cells formed?
bone marrow
63
What gives rise to all differnet types of blood cells?
hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs)
64
What are the differnet stages of neutrophil productions?
myelocyte
metamyelocyte
band
segmenter
65
Explain the control of RBC production.
imbalance of blood oxygen levels
**less oxygen** --> kidney releases **erythropoietin**
stimulated red bone marrow
erythropoiesis increases RBC count
66
State the process of erythropoiesis.
**hemocytoblast** (stem cell)
**proerythroblast**/ **erythroblast** (synthesis of heamoglobin)
**normoblast** (loss of nucleus)
**reticulocyte**
**erythrocyte**
67
Explain the clotting process.
1) **blood vessel spasm** (pain receptors, platelet release, serotonin release, smooth muscle vessel contraction)
2) **platelet plug** (platelets collect near injury, collagen)
3) **blood coagulation** (cellular damahe and blood contact with foreign substance)
68
What is blood clotting?
blood coagulated forming solid masses or clots
69
Explain the formation of the platelet plug.
1) break in vessel wall
2) blood escapes through break
3) platelets adhere to each other, the end of the broken vessel and exposed collagen
4) platelet plug helps control blood loss
70
What happens to platelets when they come in contact with an injured area?
- swell up
- become sticky
- release chemicals
71
What three complex systems are part of blood clotting?
blood platelets
cells lining the blood vessel
blood proteins
72
What are the two steps of blood clotting?
1) platelet plug formation
2) blood coagulation
73
What two proteins are always present in the blood plasma? What are they produced by?
**Prothrombin** (P)
**Fibrinogen** (F)
production location: liver
74
What do injured tissues and platelets release? What does it do to prothrombin?
release: **prothrombin activator** and **calcium ions **
function: changes prothrombin to **thrombin** (enzyme)
75
What occurs when all of the healing of a damaged blood vessel has finished?
- **plasmin** enzyme is activated
- **fibrin clot** is dissolved
76
What is the function of trombocytes?
- clotting
- formation of protein fibers that trap blood cells
77
What are the final events of homeostasis?
1) fibrin forms a meshwork
2) clot occludes the damaged blood vessel
3) retraction of the clot (facilitates wound healing)
4) fate of blood clot (invasion by fibroblasts, fibrinolysis)
78
State the name of the condition which causes a disrupted clotting process. What do individuals lack? What do they need for normal functioning? What type of trait is it? How does it originate?
Name: **Heamophilia A** (classical heamophilia)
Lack: **Factor VIII **(*Antihaemophylic Globulin* (AHG))
Require: **injections**
Name: **Heamophilia B** (Christmas disease)
Lack: **Factor IX **(*Antihaemophylic Globulin* (AHG))
Require: **injections**
Congenital **recessive trait** carried on the** X chromosome**
79
When does an individuals blood have a reduces ability to clot?
lack **platelets**
lack **vitamin K**
80
What are the two blood clotting pathways?
intrinsic pathway
extrinsic pathway
