Sweatman Antimicrobial Reading Flashcards
What does mutations in penicillin binding proteins have in common with methylation of ribosomal subunits?
they are alterations that microbes have developed to subvert the target of antibiotics = 2 ways microbes have developed resistance
How have microbes decreased the entry of a drug or forced the efflux of a drug?
altered their porin structure (to resist cell wall synthesis inhibitors) and they have developed efflux pumps to remove the drug (tetracylines)
Microbes have become resistant to sulfa drugs by…
aquiring alternative metabolic pathways to bypass the pathway sulfa drugs block (they block folate synthesis)
What are 2 ways that microbes can keep drugs inactive?
- cause a failure for the prodrug to convert to it’s active form (isoniazid)
- inactivate a drug (penicillin by B-lactamase)
WHat are the 3 major factors to consider when selecting an anti-infective?
- microorganism factors
- host factors
- drug factors
Factors to consider when selecting anti-microbial: Microorganism factors (2)
- ID organism
2. susceptibility of organism
Factors to consider when selecting anti-microbial: Host factors (8)
- Drug allergies
- pharmacokinetic variables
- effect of food on drug
- effect of other drugs
- renal/hepatic function
- pregnancy/lactation
- signs and symptoms
- Fever, malaise, leukocytosis, pus
Factors to consider when selecting anti-microbial: Drug factors (6)
- economics
- tissue penetration
- drug toxicity
- preventing resistance
- bad drug combos
What are the 4 major mechanisms of action for antimicrobials?
- inhibition of cell wall synthesis (i.e. must have proliferating pop of microbes)
- inhibition of protein synthesis
- inhibition of folic acid biosynthetic pathways
- inhibition of DNA/RNA synthesis
T or F: Sometimes, you need to combine drugs that work by different mechanisms of action to achieve synergistic killing effects
true
What are the 5 classes that interfere with cell wall synthesis?
penicilins chephlasporins carbapenems monobactams vancomyosins
Describe penicillin’s mechanism of action.
they bind to transpeptidase to inhibits the crosslinking of NAM and NAG
(they also activate the autolysins, carboxypeptidases, and endopeptidases that hydrolyze and destroy components of the cell wall)
What are penicillin binding proteins?
bacterial proteins that penicillin binds
T or F: for penicillins to function, they must penetrate the cell wall.
true
What are the 4 ways bacteria may become resistant to penicillins?
- modification of their PBPs
- active pumping of drugs back out of cells
- developing B-lactamases to cleave of the B-lactam ring structure (this occurs w/in the periplasmic space)
- altered porins (gram - bac only) that prevent the drugs from reaching the PBPs
What is the MIC?
minimum inhibitory concentration = lowest conc of an antimicrobial that will inhibit the visible growth of a microog after overnight incubation
T or F: the lower the MIC, the better the antimicrobial agent.
true: a lower conc is needed to stop the growth the microbe
What is the MBC?
minimum bactericidal concentration = lowest conc of antibiotic required to kill a particular bacterium
What is the difference between MIC and MBC?
MIC is the lowest conc of drug needed to stop the bac from reproducing and MBC is the lowest conc of antibiotic needed to kill the microbe
Describe the quantitative method of susceptibility testing.
a single colony of bacteria added into liquid cultures in varying antibiotic conc. The lowest conc in which there is no visible growth = MIC.
The remaining liquid cultures are plated onto agar that contains no antibiotic. The lowest dose/conc of the liquid antibiotic dilution in which bacteria does not grow on the petri dish = MBC.
Describe the qualitative method of susceptibility testing.
Disks with “impregnated” drugs are placed onto a petri dish that has been swabbed with bacteria. After incubation, the size of zones of inhibition around the disks indicate the bacterial susceptibility of the drug
What drugs target cell wall synthesis?
B-lactams (penicillin, cepthalasporins, carbapenems, monobactams) and Vancomyosin
What drugs inhibit folic acid synthesis?
trimethoprim
sulfonamides
What 2 enzymes are targeted to inhibit DNA/RNA synthesis?
DNA gyrase
DNA-directed RNA polymerase
What drug targets DNA gyrase?
quinolones
What drug targets DNA-directed RNA polymerase?
rifampin
What drugs inhibit protein syntheis by binding the 50S ribosomal subunit?
chloramphenicol macrolides lincosamides ketolides Retapamulin linezolid
What drugs target the 30S ribosomal subunit?
tetracylines
aminoglycosides
Should penicillin be combined with tetracycline?
No. Tetracycline is bacteriostatic so it woud antagonize the penicillin
Why are oral contraceptives less effective when taken with an antibiotic?
Gut flora becomes disrupted and the enterohepatic recirculation of estrogenic components becomes impaired–> decreasing t1/2 of the OC –> less duration of action –> betta wrap that junk!
**Under normal circumstances, gut flora cleave estrogen-glucuronide conjugates to allow the estrogenic component to be absorbed. This cleavage decreases with decreasing gut flora function during antibiotic therapy
What are the 4 subclasses of penicillins?
- natural penicillins
- aminopenicillins
- penicillinase-resistant penicillins
- antipseudomonal penicillins
Why would you want to co-administer penicillin with an irreversible B-lactamase inhibitor?
broadens the antimicrobial spectrum to include coverage of B-lactasmase producing organisms
What types of penicillin is used to treat gram positive microorganisms?
natural penicillins and penicillinase-resistant penicillins
What cell wall synthesis inhibitors are used to fight infections with gram - bacteria?
Aminopenicillins
Antipseudomonal
Cycloserine
Polymixin B
What are examples of natural penicillins?
penicillin G and penicillin V
Why must penicillin ___ must be administered by IV. Why?
G: it is readily destroyed in acidic environments (i.e. digestive tract)
IM injections of penicillin G are used to prevent ____ and treat ____
rheumatic fever
syphilis
How is penicillin V be administered?
orally but on an empty stomach (1 hr before meals or 2-3 hrs after meals for maximal efficacy)
What are examples of aminopenicillins?
ampicillin and amoxicillin
How is ampicillin administered?
enterally or parenterally; if oral, must be on an empty stomach
Which aminopenicillin can be taken with or without food?
amoxicililin
What are examples of penicillinase-resistant penicillins?
dicloxacillin
methicillin
oxacillin
nafcillin
What is the MOA for penicillinase-resistant penicillins?
they contain side groups that protect the drugs from being inactivated by B-lactamases
How is methicillin usually administered?
parenterally
How is dicloxacillin usually administered?
orally
How is oxacillin usually administered?
parenterally
How is nafcillin usually administered?
parenterally
Where do B-lactamases reside?
periplasmic space
What are the 2 effects penicllin binding PBPs has?
- blocks transpeptidase of peptidoglycan to prevent cell wall syntheis
- activates autolytic enzymes in the cell wall that cause lesions –> bacterial cell death
What are examples of antipseudomonal penicillins?
carbenicillin
ticarcillin
mezlocillin
piperacillin
How are antipseudomonal penicillins usually administered?
parenterally
carbenicillin the the only one to be administered orally (but therapeutic levels are only found in the uninary tract = treatment only for UTIs and prostate infections
What penicillin is restricted to treating UTIs an prostate infections?
carbenicillin
T or F: Irreversible B-lactamases can be administered as a stand alone antimicrobial therapy.
False: they are have no anti-microbial activity by themselves. They need to be co-administered with penicillins to expand coverage against B-lactamase resistant microorgs
Cephlophlasporins structurally resemble ____ because they possess _____
penicillins bc they have a B-lactam chemical backbone
How are cephalopsorins different than penicillins?
cephalosporins are relatively stable to pH changes and may be taken with or without food
What drugs are irreversible inhibitors of B-lactamases?
clavulanic acid
sulbactam
tazobactam
Why can penicillin-allergic patients also be hypersensitive to cephalosporins?
bc of their structural similarities
T or F: As a rule, it is wise to refrain from prescribing ______ to patients with a well documented history of anaphylactic reactions to penicillins.
cephalosporins
Other than allergic reactions, what are some adverse effects of cephalosporins? (7)
- GI irritation
- local irritation at the site of injection
- renal toxicity (bc excreted by kidneys) = trouble for pt. with kidney disease
- disulfriam-like reactions
- hypoprothrombinemia
- seizures in pt with impaired kidney function (bc drug accumulates)
- 2ndary infections (disrupt normal flora)
What are examples of carbapenems?
imipenem/cilastatin
doripenem
ertapenem
meropenem
T or F: Carbapenems are bacteriostatic and inhibit cell wall synthesis.
False: they are bactericidal
How are carbapenems different then penicillin and cephalosporins?
they have a different stereochemical structure in their B-lactam ring that renders them resistant to B-lactamases
What drugs interfere with cell wall synthesis by blocking polymerization and crosslinking by binding to D-ala D-ala portion of the cell walls?
telavancin
vancomycin
What are the MOA for telavancin?
- blocking polymerization and cross-linking by binding D-ala pair
- disruption of the cell membrane potential and changes in cell permeability bc of the presence of a lipophillic side chain moiety
WHat is the MOA for cycloserine?
inhibits cell wall synthesis in gram-NEG microbes but is usually reserved for treating TB infections resistant to first line anti-tubercular drugs