Studies Flashcards
Milgram (1963)
tested obedience- had to shock ps if they got an answer wrong
65% shocked up to 450 V
100% shocked up to 300V
Bickman
power of uniforms
asking people to pick up a bag either dressed as guard (80% obedience) milk man (40% obedience) civilian (40%)
Hofling et al
nurses in hospital obeying unknown doctor and giving a patient a drug exceeding the suggested dose
not supposed to accept orders over the phone
compared to control group who were given questionairre on what they’d do
21/22 obeyed- don’t question authority
ecological validity
reliability as easily repeated
nurses could have worked out it was fake
ethics
Sheridan + King
gave shocks to puppies
54% of males gave fatal shock
100% of females delivered a fatal shock
Asch (1951) *
line study
75% conformed at least once
NSI+ ISI
Perin + Spencer *
repeated Asch with engineering students and found lower levels of conformity
Lucas et al *
maths questions and found lower ability students conformed more
supports ISI
Zimbardo (1971) *
prison study
people readily conformed to social roles
McDermott- zim *
ps behaved as if the prison was real so good ecological validity as 90% of conversations were about prison
Rotter
idea of locus of control
sense we have about what directs events in our lives and how much control we have over our behaviour
internal (resist pressure to obey + direct their own lives) or external (things that happen are outside of their control)
Holland
repeated Milgram and measured whether ps were internal or external LOC
37% of internals didn’t continue to highest level
23% externals didn’t continue to full shock
supports LOC
Twenge et al
(meta analysis) found that people have become more resistant to obedience but more external in LOC
doesnt support LOC
Gamson et al
(social support) asked ps to run a smear campaign against an oil company
29/33 groups rebelled due to peer support, were in groups so could discuss
Adorno et al
developed F scale to measure authoritarian personality using 2000 middle class white males
Milgram and Elms
interviewed 20 people who went to full shocks in Milgram and 20 who didnt go full shock
did multiple personality tests including F scale and found high levels on F scale on full shock group + they admired the experimenter = authoritarian personality
(blind obedience to authority)
compared to people who didnt give full shocks supports Adorno
correlation not causation
Christie and Jahoda
argued F scale was politically biased as it only measures right wing ideology (heirarchy, obedience)
some extreme left and right wing ideologies have a lot in common
doesn’t account for whole political spectrum
Moscovicci
minority influence and importance of consistency
blue green slides
2 confeds saying blue whole time -consistent= 8%
2 confeds saying blue 12 times green 24 times- non= 1.25%
Nemeth
importance of flexibility in minority influence
compensation to ski lift victims
1 group minority argued for low compensation and were inflexible
1 group minority argued same but were flexible
in 1 minority had little effect compared to 2nd group where majority was more likely to compromise
Nolan et al *
energy use on a street (signs on people’s doors)
one sign said other people in the neighbourhood were reducing their consumption and other sign didn’t
bigger reduction in 1st sign condition
Baddeley
coding in STM + LTM
acoustically similar and dissimilar words
semantically similar and dissimilar words
STM- acoustically
LTM- semantically
Miller
capacity of STM = 7±2
made observations of everyday practices- around 7 eg days of the week, music scale
Peterson and Peterson
duration of STM= 18 seconds
presented a trigram and ps had to remember it whilst counting back in 3s from a certain number
each trial lasted longer time eg 3s,6s,9s,12s,15s,18s
Bahrick et al
duration of LTM= possibly infinite 392 ps aged 17-74 tested on photo recognition (1) of people in yearbook or free recall (2) of people in class within 15 years- 1= 90% accurate 2=60% accurate after 48 years- 1=70% accurate 2=30%
Atkinson and Shriffin
multi store model of memory
consists of sensory store STM and LTM
HM (case study)
had hippocampus removed in surgery
STM was same but couldn’t form new long term memories
shows evidence for separate stores (MSM)
episodic was impaired but semantic and procedural were both okay
eg he could not recall stroking a dog 30 mins prior but he still understood the concept of a dog
KF (case study)- Shallice and Warrington
had brain damage due to accident
couldn’t remember words in STM when read to him but could when he read them
poor audiotory but could process visual information normally
showing STM processed different types in different ways
doesnt support MSM
Tulving
different types of LTM
episodic- personal events from our lives
procedural- how to do things eg driving a car
semantic- knowledge of the world and general concepts eg love/animals
Clive Wearing
parts of LTM were normal and some were impaired episodic was impaired semantic was fine procedural was fine supports multiple LTM stores he could still read music and play piano
Baddeley and Hitch
working memory model
consists of central executive, phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, episodic buffer
KF
couldnt remember words read to him (phonological)
could remember words he read (VSS)
Dual task exp
more similar tasks are harder as they use the same parts of the brain/ memory and they have limited capacity
Underwood and Postman *
retroactive interference 1st group asked to learn 2 lists of words (1 list of word pairs and 1 list unrelated) eg cat-tree then cat-glass 2nd group asked to learn 1st list () both groups had to recall first list 2nd group was better
Baddeley and Hitch *
asked rugby players to recall the teams they had played
players who missed more games could remember more as they had less interference
retroactive interference
Godden and Baddeley *
context dependant forgetting
divers learnt words on land or in sea and recalled in matched or opposite context
higher recall when context was same for learn + recall
Carter and Cassidy *
state dependant forgetting
learning on anti histamine drug and recall in matched or opposite state
higher recall when state was same for learn + recall
Loftus and Palmer *
effects of leading questions of EWT
showed ps clips of car crashes and asked how fast they were going using different words (smashed (40mph) /hit(38mph) )
came back and asked if they saw broken glass (none)
32% said yes in smashed compared to 14% in hit
Gabbert et al *
effect of post event discussion on EWT
ps watched video of crime from different angles and discussed it after
71% recalled events they didn’t actually see
Skagerburg and Wright *
suggested memory isn’t distorted in PED but memory conformity occurs
Johnson and Scott *
weapon focus effect (anxiety)
pen- face recall 49% accurate
kinfe- face recall 39% accurate
anxiety had negative effect
Yuille and Cutshall *
real life exp interviewing witnesses of store robbery and shooting 4-5 month after initial incident
highest levels of stress recorded gave most accurate EWT
anxiety had a positive effect as fight of flight was triggered which increased alertness
Geiselmen and Fisher
developed cognitive interview to improve EWT
recall everything, reverse order, reinstate context, change perspective
Fisher et al
developed enhanced CI which focused on social dynamics of the interaction
when to make eye contact, how to reduce eyewitness anxiety
evidence from Köhnken that ECI leads to an increase in inaccurate info/incorrect details
Kohnken et al
meta analysis of s 55 studies comparing cognitive interview to standard police interview and found 41% increase in correct info
61% increase in inaccurate info, especially when enhanced cog interview was used so should be used carefully
Meltzoff and Moore *
caregiver- infant interactions
controlled observation
adult displayed facial expressions and child had dummy in but was taken out and baby copied- association
Grossman *
role of father
found that quality of mother child attachment was more important in attachment quality in adolescence
father is more of a play stimulating role
Schafer and Emerson *
stages of attachment - AIDM
babies in working class families in Glasgow
natural environment as was a overt observation
Mary Ainsworth
strange situation assessing attachment types
controlled observation
70% secure- i trust you
15% insecure avoidant - i dont care
15% insecure resistant - i dont trust you
Bowlby (1)
monotropic theory of attachment (evolutionary)
innate tendency to form attachments
A- adaptive
S- social releasers
C- critical period- 3-6 months
M- monotropy
I- internal working model
if attachment is formed in critical period then child will suffer emotional, physical and intellectual deficits
can form attachments up to 3 years old but not as strong
Bowlby (2)
maternal deprivation- mothering is useless if delayed after 2.5 years 44 thieves (44 control)- affection-less psychopathy 14/44 had AP 12/14 with AP had prolonged separation from mother in first 2 years of lives AP- don't feel guilt/ remorse , withdrawn, uncaring +linked with criminality
Lewis
replicated 44 thieves with a bigger sample size of 500 and found no such link
other factors than MD that cause issues later on in life
Bowlby (3)
influence of early attachment on later relationships
internal working model works as a template for assumption about later relationships
determinist
Hazen and Shaver
love quiz of nearly 100 questions in local newspaper
tested attachment types with parents and their views on love and relationships
people can lie on questionnaires
info is retrospective so may not remember correctly
not everyone had an equal chance to participate
Van Izjendoorn + Kroonenburg
cultural variations of attachment types meta analysis of strange situation 32 studies, 8 countries, 2000 children found more variation within cultures than between highest secure in GB lowest in china IA highest in west Germany IR highest in Israel and Japan
Lorenz
geese imprinting (attach to first moving object seen) critical period of 4-25 hrs shows attachment is innate and is done for survival
Guiton
found that chickens imprint on a yellow washing up glove and try to mate with it
Harlow
contact comfort mother vs feeding mother (4 conditions)
groups of monkeys spent more time with CC and monkeys with wire mother had diarrhoea
monkeys in exp were timid, couldn’t mate, killed offspring
Howe
practical applications for Harlow using the knowledge to help social workers understand the risk of neglect
Rutter et al
romanian orphanages
compared 154 RO children to 54 adopted british children if they were adopted after 6 months they showed deficits in social, mental and physical development
Lower IQ the later they were adopted
showed disinhibited attachment- not one strong one
Compared to secure attachment in British
disinhibited is an adaptation of living in RO as they would have had multiple carers but wouldn’t have actually formed a strong attachment with any of them
Zeenah
used strange situation on institutionalised children
136 romanian orphanages aged 12-31 months old, spent 90% lives in institutions
45% disorganised and 19% secure in RO group
compared to 74% secure and >20% disorg in control group
Dollard and Miller
learning theory of attachment- operant conditioning
caregiver feeds child which reduces unpleasant feeling- positive reinforcement
child stops crying- negative reinforcement-
hunger= primary drive food= primary reinforcer caregiver= secondary reinforcement attachment= secondary drive
Schafer and Emerson
found infants formed attachments to their mothers even if they are fed by other carers - contradictory
Aubrey Lewis
37% of patients with OCD had parents with it and 21% had siblings with it
genetic vulnerability
Taylor
found evidence that there may be as many as 230 genes that are involved in the development of OCD
polygenic
Nestadt
in OCD found concordance rates of 68% in MZ twins and 31% in DZ twins and MZ share identical genes
still is effect of environment
MZ share more similar environment so may be why the CR is higher
Cromer
over 50% of patients with OCD had suffered a traumatic event so may be due to this rather than genes
Hu
found lower levels of serotonin in OCD patients than controls
may be from OCD rather than a cause of it
may be from accompanying depression ( comorbidity)
Saxena
reviewed brain scan studies and found links between higher activity levels in patients with OCD
Soomro
reviewed 17 studies which compared SSRIs to placebos and found that SSRIs are 70% more effective in reducing symptoms
other 30% did were helped by a combination of drugs and psychological treatments
Griest
compared effectiveness of ERP- emotional and ritual prevention to drug therapy and found that ERP was as effective as drugs
no need for drugs (which have side effects) if treatments are available, deals with root of the illness
some people can’t face therapy
bailey
found that majority of women had the same attachment type to their child as they did to their own mother
hartup
in nursery securely attached children are more popular and engaged in more social interactions compared to resistant who relied on teachers for interaction and emotional support
quinton
compared 50 women who had been brought up in institutions to women who had been bought up in normal homes
ex institutionalised had extreme difficulties acting as parents
similar to harlow monkeys
mowrer
two process model where phobias are acquired by classical conditioning and maintained by operant conditioning
mowrer
created a phobia in rats by pairing a buzzer with electric shock and fear response was recorded from just the buzzer
he also taught rats how to escape the electric shock and they did this every time the buzzer went showing negative reinforcement
watson and rayner
created phobia in little albert
by pairing loud noise with white rabbit
supports two process model of classical conditioning
menzies and clarke
only 2% of people with a fear of water had actually had a traumatic experience with water
dinardo
in control group, 50% of healthy, non phobic individuals had a traumatic experience with a dog
(but not got a phobia which shows there may be other factors)
seligman
argued that we have an innate biological preparedness which predisposes us to have certain phobias to increase survival- passed down from ancestors
eg fear of lions/tigers
supported by the fact that many people have phobias for things that they never really encounter eg snakes
jacobs
capacity of stm
digit span- ps given 4 digits in order then asked to recall in order and number of digits given increases until they cant answer anymore
mean digits= 9.3 mean letters= 7.3
wolpe
flooding
drove a woman who had a phobia of cars around for 4 hours and anxiety decreased
rapidly removed fear responses which got rid of phobia
rothbaum
90% of people who had a fear of flying would flew after SD showing evidence for effectiveness
gilroy
studied 45 arachnaphobics who had SD and after 3 and 33 months, their fear response was lower than a control group who were only given relaxation techniques
orne and holland
milgram ps guessed the experiment was fake and went along with it due to demand characteristics/ wanting to please the experimenter
tapes showed that only 50% of ps believed shocks were real
french documentary
similar to milgram paid ps thought they were on game show had to deliver shocks to other ps (actors) ordered by presenter, in front of a live audience 80% went to full shock level shows milgram wasn't a one off
Albrecht
found that on a programme to help pregnant teens resist pressure to smoke, teens who had a buddy were sig less likely to smoke compared to those without a buddy (RWA)
simonella
studied 76 children aged 12 months using strange situation in italy
found- 50% secure and 36% insecure avoidant
lower secure and higher IA than in any other studies
may be due to more mothers using professional childcare
Holliday
studied the cognitive interview with children
especially intellectually disabled children
perspective taking question is too hard as they may have theory of mind deficits which doesn’t allow this to occur
changes have been made such as warm up questions and asking about familiar situations
