Stress

Question 1

What is stress?

Answer 1

Stress is the psychological and physical state of… when the stressors

A state of psychological and physical strain caused by unpleasant stimuli

biological and a psychological response to a perceived threat

Question 2

What is a stressor?

Answer 2

Any stimulus that causes a stress response

Question 3

What is Selye’s GAS General Adaptation Syndrome

Answer 3

Selye’s GAS Is a model of stress that was developed by Hans Selye in 1936 that suggests that all animals and humans respond to stress in the same way

When presented with certain stimuli we have identical bodily responses

Selye’s GAS is meant to be a generic and unspecific response

Question 4

What are the 3 stages of GAS?

Answer 4

Alarm

• a stressor is perceived and stress hormones are secreted
• the sympathetic nervous system causes arousal levels to increase so we can take action

Resistance

• the body recovers from initial alarm
• SNS activity declines but stays high to cope with the situation

Exhaustion

• adrenal glands are unable to function properly
• blood-sugar levels drop
• Diseases of adaptation: high blood pressure, heart disease, ulcers, depression

Question 5

Does research support the General Adaptation Syndrome GAS or disprove it?

Answer 5

Selye’s GAS is meant to be a generic and unspecific response. We all react in the same way to the same thing.

But subsequent research has shown that stress is specific to each of us, we ourselves deem certain stimuli as stressful.

The GAS was developed from Selye’s research into stress which suggested that there was only one stress response

Selye (1950)

Procedure: Gave rats different stressors Extreme heat and cold exposure Intense sounds and light Forced exercise Injections

Findings: stress reactions were identical in mice Adrenal gland getting bigger Thymus and spleen shrinkage Stomach and small intestine ulcers

Mason (1995)

Stressors vary in the amount of adrenaline and cortisol they produce the amount of stress hormone a stressor causes depends on the amount of fear/ anger it creates

Question 6

Outline and evaluate research into ‘life changes’ as a source of stress.

Answer 6

What are life changes? Examples: Research: Holmes & Rahe (1967) SSRS Social Readjustment Rating Scale Theory: Procedure: List of 43 life changes given a rating/score Examples: What are LCUs? Rahe et al. (1970) Jacobs & Charles (1980) Martin (1989) Evaluation correlational difference between positive and negative life changes daily hassles are better indicators

Question 7

What are life events? Give some examples.

Answer 7

Life events are occasional events in our lives that need us to make major lifestyle adjustments. New job Marriage Divorce Death University

Question 8

What is the Sympathomedullary pathway?

Answer 8

The Sympathomedullary pathway SMP is a bodily system that is activated in response to acute stress and involves the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system.

Question 9

What is eustress?

Answer 9

A healthy kind of stress that occurs in response to exhilarating experiences such as sky-diving or

Question 10

Evaluate Selye’s GAS

Answer 10

1. Mason (1995) Stressors vary in amount of adrenaline and cortisol they produce Depends on- amount of fear/ anger they create
2. Stress response is not identical there are individual differences in responses (i.e. gender, personality)
3. 1st theory to explain the physical symptoms/effects of stress
4. Initial research on rats: hard to generalise/extrapolate
5. Ethical issues: rats subjected to painful stressors Selye thought was justified

Question 11

Explain one limitation of the Social Readjustment Rating Scale. (2 marks)

Answer 11

It doesn’t distinguish between negative and positive life changes such as change in research shows that positive life changes are not associated with heightened risk for stress-related illness

Question 12

Drug therapy, stress inoculation therapy, and biofeedback are methods used to cope with stress. Discuss two of these methods for coping with stress. (16 marks)

Answer 12

Drug therapy Beta blockers Stress inoculation therapy Biofeedback

Question 13

Describe what happens when the Sympathomedullary pathway is activated.

Answer 13

Evaluation of a stressor  CEREBRAL CORTEX Sends a message to the hypothalamus

Hypothalamus activates

Sympathetic nervous system

Which stimulates the adrenal medulla to

Secrete adrenaline and noradrenaline

Which brings about fight-or-flight response

Question 14

What is the Hypothalamic Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) System?

Answer 14

The Hypothalamic Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) System is a bodily system that is activated in response to chronic, long-term stress

Question 15

Describe what happens when the HPA system is activated.

Answer 15

The hypothalamus registers the presence of a continuing stressor and stimulates the pituitary gland to release adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)

Which travels in blood stream to activate the adrenal cortex (outer layer of the adrenal gland)

The adrenal cortex secretes corticosteriods such as cortisol.

Cortisol increases blood sugar levels

This maintains a steady supply of energy, but also suppresses the immune system.

Question 16

What is chronic stress?

Answer 16

The stress response is triggered continuously

Question 17

prolonged HPA activation can lead to

Answer 17

Cushing’s syndrome Caused by exposure to high cortisol levels from long periods of stress Symptoms: weight gain, mood disruptions, memory + attention lapses

Question 18

Briefly outline the role of cortisol in the stress response.

Answer 18

Glucocorticoid hormone Increases blood sugar levels Steady supply of blood sugar/glucose Constant source of energy Energy needed to replace what was used up by the SMP Increases ability to tolerate pain Impaired immune functioning, memory and cognitive ability

Question 19

Watson et al. (2004)

Answer 19

Support for adverse effects on body bipolar disorder sufferers + Bipolar disorder sufferers in remission (overcoming) + Healthy control Levels of cortisol higher in bipolar groups Suggests that HPA activation over long period of time is involved with bipolar disorder

Question 20

Outline the study of Kiecolt-Glaser et al. (1984) into the

Answer 20

49 males 26 females First year medical students 2 Blood samples taken: 1 month before final exams and after 1st day of exams Blood analysed for natural killer cell activity Questionnaire given Results: Natural killer cell activity reduced in 2nd sample Chronic stress involved in reduced immune function Those with high scores in loneliness, stressful life events and psychiatric symptoms e.g. depression and anxiety had weakest immune response Vulnerability to immunosuppression through stress determined by individual differences Personality, gender, age Evaluation: Naturally occurring  external validity, mundane realism, not artificial Not representative  low pop. validity

Question 21

Evaluate Kiecolt-Glaser et al. (1984)

Answer 21

Kiecolt-Glaser et al. (1995) Extra support Longer wound-healing time For PAR with chronic stress from caring for Alzheimer relatives Evans et al. (1994) Short-term stress can be beneficial Students gave mildly stressful public speaking i.e. presentations to classmates had increased levels of antibody sigA Which improves body’s ability to resist infection Cohen et al. (1993) Support for effect of stress on immune system Research study on cold virus People given virus more likely to catch cold if they had high stress levels

Question 22

Evaluate research into the link between stress and immunosuppression.

Answer 22

Correlational (unhealthy lifestyle may contribute Individual differences (age, gender, personality, immunosuppression increased with age in rats) Findings allow development of appropriate therapies (health practitioners) Longitudinal studies required (to assess changes in the immune system)

Question 23

IMMUNOSUPPRESSION

Answer 23

Where the effectiveness of the immune system’s functioning is reduced And vulnerability to illness increases More likely to become ill/have infections Caused by chronic stress Cortisol is beneficial in protection and healing but too much suppresses the immune system

Question 24

CARDIOVASCULAR DISORDERS (CVD’S)

Answer 24

Caused by chronic stress Hardened arteries High blood pressure Coronary heart disease = arteries becoming clogged with fatty deposits Direct = bodily response from systems Indirectly = unhealthy lifestyle due to stress (e.g. smoking, drinking, no exercise, poor diet, drug-use)

Question 25

Outline and evaluate one research that demonstrates the negative effects of long-term stress

Answer 25

Timio et al. (1988)

Long term stress has negative effects on health

20 years comparing nuns with working women

Nuns live fairly protected lives

Blood pressure of nuns: unchanged/normal

Blood pressure of working women: heightened

Question 26

What role does cortisol play in immunosuppression?

Question 27

Key Study - Friedman and Rosenman (1974)

Answer 27

Aim: To investigate whether there was a link between Type A personality and the development of heart disease.

Procedure: Over 3000 American men between 39 and 59 were interviewed to identify whether they were Type A personality or Type B. They were monitored for eight and a half years and their lifestyle and levels of health were assessed.

Results: After 8 and a half years, 257 men (from the original 3000+) had developed heart disease. 70% of these were from the Type A group.

Evaluation - AO2

It was a longitudinal study which does give us a good idea of the long term effect of personality factors on stress related illness.

Friedman & Rosenman did not specify what aspect of type A behaviour might be responsible for heart disease. Later researchers reviewed the original data and found that it was ‘the negative behaviours’ such as hostility that seemed to be responsible.

Once again this is a natural experiment which uses correlational detail so cause and effect cannot be established.

Question 28

What is hardiness?

Answer 28

Whereas people with Type A personality are likely to suffer more from stress relating illness, hardiness is thought to be a ‘protective’ factor - meaning that those with hardy personalities may be less likely to suffer from stress related conditions.

Question 29

Who proposed the idea of the ‘hardy personality’ and what are its 3 characteristics?

Answer 29

Hardiness was proposed by Kobasa and Maddi (1977) and its 3 characteristics are:

Control:

• Those with hardy personalities feel that they are in control of stressful situations
• This is very similar to having an internal locus of control
• They do not feel that their level of stress is controlled by external factors

Challenge:

• they see potentially stressful situations as opportunities for personal growth and development
• rather than threats or stressors

Commitment:

• They put 100% into whatever they do
• They do not give up easily
• They feel a strong sense of involvement in the world

Question 30

Evaluate Kobasa’s hardy personality.

AO2

Answer 30

Kobasa did not state whether all three factors (control, challenge, commitment) were equally important, and further research has concluded that control is probably the most important factor.

Much of Kobasa’s research into the link between hardiness and stress related illness used a white male middle class sample, so it is difficult to say whether her results are generalisable to other populations.

Research has only shown a correlation between hardiness and stress related illness, so we cannot establish a cause and effect relationship.

Question 31

Biological Therapy - Drugs

Answer 31

Drugs can be used to combat stress by reducing or eliminating the symptoms of the stress such as fast heart rate. Today there are two main categories:

Benzodiazepines (Lithium and Valium): These drugs slow the activity of central nervous system (e.g. brain and spinal cord) and enhance activity of GABA causing relaxation.

Beta blockers: These slow down activity in the sympathetic branch of the ANS by reducing levels of adrenaline and noradrenaline. This reduces blood pressure, heart rate etc. and produces a feeling of calm.

…

Question 32

Evaluate drug therapy as a way to cope with stress

Answer 32

Evaluation - AO2

Quick acting in comparison to some other treatments (e.g. cognitive behaviour therapy).

Drug therapies treat the symptoms and not the problem itself. Therefore, symptoms may reappear when treatment is stopped.

Some drugs may have side effects, for example the serotonin reducing effect of BZ’s can cause depression. Aggression, short term memory loss and mental confusion are also possible.

Long-term use can result in tolerance (higher doses are eventually needed to produce the same effect) and dependence.

Question 33

What are benzodiazapines?

Answer 33

A type of drug used in drug therapies for coping with stress

Question 34

What are beta blockers?

Answer 34

Beta blockers are a type of drug used as a drug therapy for coping with stress

Question 35

What is ‘Stress Inoculation Therapy’ or SIT?

Answer 35

Stress Inoculation Therapy (SIT) is a psychological method of stress management.

SIT is a form of cognitive behavioural therapy. The aim is to replace irrational and negative thoughts with more positive ways of thinking about a problem and to teach new behaviours to cope with stress.

There are three stages to the therapy:

Conceptualisation - The therapist helps the individual to identify their stressors and how they respond to these and how successful these responses have been. Patterns of self-defeating internal dialogue (i.e. negative thoughts) are identified.

Skill acquisition and rehearsal - The therapist teaches the client coping skills that may be general or event focused. For example replace negative thoughts with positive ones.

Application and follow through - The client applies what they have learned to real life situations.

Question 36

Evaluate SIT as a method of stress management. AO2

Answer 36

SIT does not have any undesirable side effects that might be encountered with drug treatments. Unlike drugs there is also no problems with risk of addiction or withdrawal symptoms.

SIT addresses the root cause of the problem - why the client is stressed – rather than just removing the symptoms of stress. This means it should have a longer lasting effect than other therapies which just deal with the physical effects of stress (e.g. drug therapy).

Compared to using drugs it is expensive and time consuming. While drugs work immediately SIT could take weeks and months to follow the three stages and change a client’s behaviour.

SIT requires clients to be motivated and driven. They have to be prepared to practice new skills and apply them in the real world.

Question 37

Outline biofeedback as a form of stress management.

Answer 37

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Question 38

Evaluate biofeedback as a form of stress management.

Answer 38

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Question 39

Explain 2 gender differences in coping with stress.

Answer 39

Males

• less likely to talk about stress
• coping with stress in inappropriate ways, e.g. smoking, drinking

Females

• more stressed than males
• use social networks
• express emotions openly
• more likely to seek social support

Question 40

Explain the role of social support in dealing with stress.

Answer 40

The role of social support

more social support makes us better able to cope with stress

Question 41

The role of cortisol

Answer 41

hormone

steady supply of blood sugar

higher pain threshold

reduced immune system functioning