Relationships

Question 1

What do evolutionary psychology believe about our partner preferences?

Answer 1

Evolutionary psychology says that we choose our partners based on psychological processes that come from out evolution

Our preferences are evolved adaptations

Question 2

Outline the evolutionary explanation for partner preferences.

(6 or 8 marks)

Answer 2

1. preferences are evolved adaptations
2. we choose attractive traits because they are reliable indicators of reproductive ability
3. process of sexual selection
4. difference between inter-sexual and intra-sexual selection
5. conflict between sexual and natural selection
6. males and females have different strategies based on their evolution and anisogomy
7. anisogomy
8. female strategies
9. male strategies
10. gender differences in jealousy - sexual and emotional
11. Buss, Singh, Clarke & Hatfield

Question 3

Evaluate the evolutionary explanation for partner choice.

(10 marks)

Answer 3

supported by Buss (1989)

• more similarities between genders than differences
• both genders agreed that other factors (intelligence) are most important
• greater difference between cultures than between genders
• suggests other factors at play

supported by Singh (1993)

• unrepresentative sample

Does not look at other factors such as social factors

• enviornment/culture may have more influence than evolution, though evolution still plays a part
• e.g. countries where women do not have as many opportunities to provide for themselves as men do affects their partner preferences

Question 4

What is meant by the term ‘anisogamy’?

Answer 4

Anisogamy refers to the difference between male and female gametes that means that men and women use different strategies when choosing their partners male and female gametes are different male female

Question 5

What is intersexual selection?

Answer 5

Inter-sexual Selection (AO1)

Females lose more resources than men if they choose a sub-standard partner, so are pickier about who they select. They are more likely to pick a partner who is genetically fit and willing to offer the maximum resources to raise their offspring (a man who will remain by her side as the child grows to protect them both and potentially provide more children).

If they have made a good choice, then their offspring will inherit the positive features of their father and are therefore also more likely to be chosen by women or men in the next generation.

Question 6

What is intra-sexual selection?

Answer 6

Intra-sexual Selection (AO1)

Whilst females prefer quality over quantity, anisogamy suggests that men’s best evolutionary strategy is to have as many partners as possible.

To succeed, men must compete with other males to present themselves as the most attractive mate, encouraging features such as muscles which indicate to the opposite sex an ability to protect both them and their offspring.

Question 7

How do conflicts arise between natural selection and sexual selection?

Answer 7

A trait that makes an individual more attractive makes them less likely to survive

e. g. male peacocks and brightly coloured feathers - attractive but more noticeable to predators
e. g. masculine facial features from high levels of testosterone - attractive but makes immune system less responsive

Zahavi 1975

argued that unhelpful characteristic/threaten survival/hanicaps actually indicate survival strength

surviving dispite a handicap indicates superior genes

called this the handicap hypothesis

explains why some women are attracted to men who display reckless behaviour and take drugs

Question 8

Give examples of attractive physical features.

Answer 8

These features are used as reliable indicators of reproductive ability

• WHR
• facial symmetry
• body symmetry

Question 9

Give examples of attractive non-physical features.

Answer 9

intelligence personality attitudes beliefs

Question 10

How do attractive features evolve?

Answer 10

Attractive features evolve through sexual selection

Those with features that increase their reproductive ability:

• ability to attract a mate (i.e. being physically attractive)
• ability to mate (i.e fertility)
• ability to give birth to healthy offspring who are also reproductively fit

are more likely to pass on their genes to future generations.

These features are reproductively advanatageous, so they become more prevalent in the population.

Question 11

Discuss how sexual selection is related to human reproductive behaviour. (16 marks)

Question 12

How does the Halo Effect work?

Answer 12

A person is judged to have attractive personal qualities such as being kind, trustworthy, sociable, interesting and more fun based on their physical attractiveness alone

Question 13

Which research gives evidence of the halo effect at work?

Answer 13

Gunnell & Ceci (2010) People who are less physically attractive are 22% more likely to be convicted in court than people more physically attractive and that they are also likely to get sentences that are on average 22 months longer This suggests that physical attractiveness has a big impact on how we perceive others and that we deem physically attractive people to be more trustworthy than less physically attractive people.

Question 14

What does the study by Gunnell & Ceci (2010) suggest?

Answer 14

It suggests that physical attractiveness has a big impact on how we perceive others and that we deem more physically attractive people to be more trustworthy than less physically attractive people

Question 15

What is the Matching Hypothesis by Walster et al. (1966)?

Answer 15

The Matching Hypothesis suggests that people seek, are attracted to and want to start relationships with others who have the same level of physical attraction as themselves Individuals assess/evaluate their own levels of attraction first suggested to occur at a young age when we realise that not everyone can form relationships with the most attractive people identify people with the same/similar level of attractiveness as themselves because they are most attainable if we consistently choose people who are more attractive than us this would be evolutionarily foolish

Question 16

The original theory of The Matching Hypothesis by Walster et al. (1966)

Answer 16

The original theory was that people desired partners as socially desirable as themselves and it later started to look at physical attractiveness

Question 17

Self-disclosure

Answer 17

Self-disclosure occurs when we share or reveal personal information about ourselves such as our thoughts and opinions

Question 18

How does self-disclosure affect attraction?

Answer 18

We reveal more to people we like and we also like the people who self-disclose to us. But self-disclosure is not always seen as rewarding or positive

Question 19

Appropriateness of the disclosure

Answer 19

• Are you self-disclosing the right things at the right time? e.g. disclosing on the first date – over the top or too much to handle for recipient - Altman & Taylor’s (1973) study provides evidence for the appropriateness of self-disclosure being important for attraction - They found that self-disclosing at the beginning of a relationship is perceived as being inappropriate - It could be that breaking the social norms of disclosure (what is okay to reveal, at what times and in what situations) makes a person seem maladjusted and lacking in social skills - Attractive people are sensitive to these social norms

Question 20

Attribution for the disclosure

Answer 20

The reasons we give as to why the person self-disclosed to us - If we think it is because of us, the liking increases (the person especially wants to disclose to us) - If we think the that the person is just someone who self-discloses to everyone liking decrease - If we think that the environment is the reason for the self-disclosure liking also decreases

Question 21

Gender differences in self-disclosure

Answer 21

There are different expectations of how men and women behave Men don’t self-disclose often so if they do it could be perceived as awkward/inappropriate OR it could be rewarding for the female because she feels the male has especially chosen to disclose to her Women are seen as being better at and more interested in sharing intimate info so if they self-disclose it is generally more appropriate than men doing it BUT men may feel uncomfortable because they are not used to it or don’t know how to respond

Question 22

Content of the disclosure

Answer 22

Looks at the levels of intimacy in the content of the self-disclosure - High and low intimacy - attraction is weaker - Moderate intimacy - attraction is stronger Brewer & Mittleman (1980) found that self-disclosure with extreme levels of intimacy does not produce the positive results of self-disclosure, especially if it occurs between relative strangers - This illustrates that both the content and the appropriateness of the self-disclosure are important - The results could be due to the person violating social norms, being inappropriate, so that the recipient doesn’t know how to respond

Question 23

Evaluation of self-disclosure as a factor that affects attraction in romantic relationships 1. Self-disclosure alone probably doesn’t decide how attractive someone is 2. Individual differences such as personality 3. Self-disclosure may be more important in relationships where lots of intimacy is present 4. Is it cross-cultural/universal?

Answer 23

1. • Attraction can still be due to other factors e.g. interests and similarity of views, physical attractiveness - So SD interacts with other factors giving overall attraction 2. - the personality of the person self-disclosing and the personality of the person receiving the disclosure plays a part - People need different levels of intimacy - Effects how recipient receives the self-disclosure - E.g. if they only need low intimacy, low intimacy self-disclosure may not really affect them - People who are perceived as disclosing more than normal could be more rewarding for the recipient 3. - Research doesn’t distinguish between different types of romantic relationship, e.g. passionate, committed or intimate romantic relationships - we don’t know the effects that SD has in these types 4. Research suggests that it is: Kito (2010) - Found that self-disclosure was higher in romantic relationships among American and Japanese students than in same sex and cross-sex friendship relationships - Suggests that: SD is important in romantic and is experienced cross-culturally - Also suggests that SD is more important in determining attraction in relationships with high intimacy such as romantic compared with friendship - But: sample of students not representative of whole pop as students are younger

Question 24

As in Paper One and Two, you may be asked a 16-mark question, which could include an item (6 marks for AO1 Description, 4 marks for AO2 Application and 6 marks AO3 Evaluation) or simply to discuss the topic more generally (6 marks AO1 Description and 10 marks AO2 Evaluation). There is no guarantee that a 16-mark question will be asked in this topic though so it is important to have a good understanding of all of the different areas linked to the topic.

Answer 24

…

Question 25

Name the 2 factors that affect attraction?

Answer 25

Physical attractiveness

Self-disclosure

Question 26

What is self-disclosure?

Answer 26

Self-disclosure in the context of a relationship refers to how much information someone is willing to share. Altman and Taylor (1973) identified breadth and depth as important factors of self-disclosure. At the start of a relationship, self-disclosure is likely to cover a range of topics as you seek to explore the key facts about your new partner “What do you do for work”, “Where did you last go on holiday”, but these topics are relatively superficial.

Question 27

What is matching?

Answer 27

Matching refers to focusing on partners with a similar level of attractiveness as ourselves as this provides a balance between the level of intra-sexual competition and positive traits

Question 28

What is attraction?

Answer 28

desiring or liking someone

Question 29

Outline physical attractiveness as a factor affecting attractiveness

Answer 29

Physical attractiveness is viewed by society as one of the most important factors of relationship formation, but is this view supported by research? Physical appearance can be seen as a range of indicators of underlying characteristics. Women with a favourable waist to hip ratio are seen as attractive because they are perceived to be more fertile (Singh, 2002), people with more symmetrical features are seen to be more genetically fit. This is because our genes are designed to make us develop symmetrically, but diseases and infections during physical development can cause these small imperfections and asymmetries (Little and Jones, 2003).

Question 30

Evaluate physical attractiveness as a factor that affects attraction

Answer 30

validated by contemporary society modern dating online dating increasingly visual apps such as Tinder people prompted to begin relationships solely based on attractiveness in comparison to our own

Singh 1993

the Halo Effect

Question 31

What is the halo effect?

Answer 31

a cognitive bias positive traits/desirable traits/attractive personal qualities/personality because of a pleasing/attractive appearance

Question 32

Outline the Filter theory

Answer 32

Kerckhoff and Davis (1962)

suggested that when selecting partners from a range of those who are potentially available to them (a field of availables), people will use three filters to “narrow down” the choice to those who they have the best chance of a sustainable relationship with. The filter model speaks about three “levels of filters” which are applied to partners.

Filters:

• social demographic - age, religion, similar background, social class, geographical proximity
• similarity in attitudes - values, opinions
• complimentarity - fulfilling each others needs

Question 33

Evaluate the Filter theory

Answer 33

This theory may be interpreted as similar to the matching hypothesis but for personality rather than physical traits.

Some stages of this model may now be seen as less relevant, for example as modern society is much more multi-cultural and interconnected (by things such as the internet) than in the 1960s, we may now see social demography as less of a barrier to a relationship. This may lead to the criticism that the theory lacks temporal validity.

longitudinal study on university students in relationships, considering marriage supports

research by Levinger et al 1970 could not replicate results of Kerchoff & Davis’s original study

Question 34

Outline and evaluate the social exchange theory of relationships.

Answer 34

Social Exchange Theory (SET) Thibaut & Kelley (1959) see relationships in a similar way to business transactions in which people try to maximise their rewards and minimise their costs

People are motivated in relationships by the idea of profit

Rewards can be in the form of:

• attention
• self-esteem
• companionship

Costs may be things like:

• effort
• time
• emotional support

Evaluation

Question 35

Rusbult’s Investment Model (1980)

Answer 35

A successful relationship is based on how committed both partners are

Commitment determines stability over time

3 factors that create committment:

1. satisfaction - fulfillment of needs
2. comparison with alternatives - positives about being in another relationship or not being in a relationship altogether
3. investment - emotionally, time

Rusbult’s model proposes that commitment occurs when the CL and CLalt are high and the investment level is high.

Evaluation

• reductionist or too simplistic
• gender differences
• cultural differences

Question 36

Outline and evaluate the equity theory

Answer 36

Equity theory

Suggests that people are motivated by equity in a relationship and are motivated to make the relationship equitable

Equity doesn’t mean equality but rather that things are fair and balanced

This is down to subjective evaluation of what is fair

Lack of equity/fairness leads to feelings of dissatisfaction

Hatfield et al. (1979)

Asked newlyweds to assess their level of effort and contentment in their relationship

equal relationships were the most satisfactory

under-benefitted newlyweds were the least satisfied

over-benefitted were the happier than under-benefitted but less satisfied than those in equitable ones

gender differences: women find being over-benefitted more dissatisfying than men

Evaluation

• reductionist
• cultural factors
• individual differences

Question 37

Parasocial relationships

Answer 37

A parasocial relationship means a one-sided relationship

Celebrities have these kinds of relationships with their fans – the fan knows loads about them but the famous person doesn’t even know they exist

3 levels:

The levels increase in intensity as they go

Entertainment-Social: harmless fan, relationship to celebrity is fun and provides entertainment

Intense personal: obsessive thoughts begin to arise about the relationship to the celebrity

Borderline-Pathological: could become a stalker, fantasies develop that could lead to extreme behaviour

Evaluation:

• describes rather than explains
• research into attachment type and attitudes towards celebrities

Question 38

Absorption Addiction Model by McCutcheon et al. (2002)

Answer 38

Absorption: the relationship is a form of escapism

Addiction: is characterised by obsessive thoughts and an addictive relationship to the personality

Question 39

The study by Buss (1989)

Answer 39

gender difference in mate selection/partner preferences

universal differences in male and female preferences

evidence for evolutionarily adapted preferences

Question 40

Singh (1993)

Question 41

Clark and Hatfield (1989)

Answer 41

Conducted a now infamous study where male and female psychology students were asked to approach fellow students of Florida State University (of the opposite sex) and ask them for one of three things; to go on a date, to go back to their apartment, or to go to bed with them.

About 50% of both men and women agreed to the date, but whilst 69% of men agreed to visit the apartment and 75% agreed to go to bed with them, only 6% of women agreed to go to the apartment and 0% accepted the more intimate offer.

Question 42

Outline Buss 1989

Answer 42

Buss (1989)

data collected from over 10,000 adults in 33 countries/37 different cultural groups

females reported valuing resource-based characteristics when choosing a male (such as their jobs)

men valued good looks and preferred younger partners more than females did

women have evolved to select mates who can provide resources needed to look after them and a child

men have evolved to be attracted to fertile women/women with a high likelihood of reproducing because the factor limiting their reproductive success

Evaluation

findings suggests universality

used questionnaires

• qualitative and quantitative data
• leading questions
• qualitative = open questions, hard to analyse, detailed
• quantative = closed questions, easy to analyse, less detail