Issues and Debates in Psychology

Question 1

What is gender?

Answer 1

Gender is the behavioural, psychological and cultural differences that distinguish males and females from each other

Question 2

What does androcentrism mean?

Answer 2

Androcentrism is the belief that male behaviour is the norm/default and that female behaviour is the non-typical version of behaviour

‘male bias’

the behaviour of men as standard women’s behaviour is compared to

Question 3

What is meant by the term alpha bias?

Answer 3

Alpha bias is overestimating/exaggerating the differences between the behaviour of males and females

We say something is alpha biased if it has negative implications or seems exaggerated that it cannot be true

Question 4

What is beta bias?

Answer 4

Beta bias is downplaying the differences between the behaviour of males and females

Question 5

what is he difference between alpha and beta bias

Answer 5

alpha - exaggerates gender difference, doesn’t take other factors other than gender into account
beta - downplays gender differences, dismisses gender differences

Question 6

What does culture mean?

Answer 6

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Question 7

ethnocentrism

Answer 7

Ethnocentrism is the assumption that the behaviour of one ethnic group is the norm

Question 8

cultural relativism

Answer 8

Cultural relativism is the idea/belief that behaviour changes or differs cross-culturally

It is essential to consider the cultural context, where exactly behaviour is being observed/tested

There is no global right or wrong/norm, it varies across cultures

Question 9

universality in the context of gender

Answer 9

Universality of gender assumes all research applies equally to both genders

Culture promotes gender differences, e.g. blue for boys and pink for girls, but some psychologists argue that the idea of gender differences is exaggerated

Question 10

universality in the context of culture

Answer 10

Universality in culture is the idea that all behaviours apply equally across the world. Findings in research can be applied to everyone, anywhere.

Psychologists want to claim universality but bias is inevitable.

Question 11

bias in the context of gender

Answer 11

Refers to which gender is being tested/involved in research

Most research is biased towards males, as most experiments involve all male samples

Results may then be beta-biased because they ignore/minimise the important of gender differences, i.e. how women behave

Gender bias over time leads to androcentrism. All male samples mean male behaviour is taken to be the standard/norm so that behaviour that deviates such as female behaviour is misunderstood, seen as abnormal, or pathologised at worst.

Question 12

bias in the context of culture

Answer 12

Refers to where research is conducted

Most research is done in Western universities
so results should really only be applicable to Western populations only

The consequence of culture bias: findings are generalised globally when this is a mistake

Cultural differences need to be tested to combat cultural bias

When biased research assumes that its culture is the norm this is ethnocentrism

Question 13

What is free will

Answer 13

Free will 
a belief/notion/view
held by the humanistic approach
we are self-determining/we determine our own destiny
we are free to choose our
thoughts
actions
behaviours
other influences exist
environmental, biological etc.
but we can reject these forces
as Masters of our own destiny

Question 14

what is determinism

Answer 14

Determinism is the opposite of free will, the idea that we don’t have a choice in how we behave
Our behaviour has already been determined
Usually by different factors, biology, environment etc.
Free will does not exist

Question 15

hard determinism

Answer 15

a.k.a fatalism
Hard determinism says we have no level of control whatsoever
all human behaviour has a cause
internal and external forces that we cannot control
compatible with the scientific view that looks for the causal laws

Question 16

soft determinism

Answer 16

Soft determinism says we have some control, the opportunity to exercise free will if we need to
we have conscious mental control
held by the cognitive approach

Question 17

what is the difference between soft and hard determinism

Answer 17

Hard totally disregards free will

Soft accepts that behaviour is determined but we also have some control over behaviour

Question 18

biological determinism

Answer 18

Biological determinism suggests that behaviour is dictated by our biology
Any biological influences
o	Genes
o	Brain physiology
o	Biochemistry

Science has not yet been able to find a single gene whose existence says that a behaviour will definitely occur

And until this happens the hard determinism stance cannot be proven

We have to accept soft determinism

Question 19

environmental determinism

Answer 19

Environmental determinism suggests that behaviour is determined by our environment
- So things like culture, upbringing, ethnicity, experiences, etc. will determine how we behave

Question 20

psychic determinism

Answer 20

Psychic determinism suggests that behaviours is governed by unconscious thought processes
For Freud, every behaviour had a cause and the cause had its origins in the unconscious, and since we can’t access our unconscious self our behaviour is out of our control

Example: Freudian slips – saying the wrong word by accident – is caused by unconscious processes

Question 21

scientific emphasis on causal relationships

Answer 21

Determinism is all about causation, what is the cause of a behaviour why did the behaviour occur, and so the different schools of psychology all say the origin of behaviour/the cause of a behaviour is in different things, for Freud the behaviour is caused by the unconscious, for behaviourists the environment, for psycho-biologists the human body and so on
The new focus on scientific proof has led to an upsurge in determinist theories because determinism is thought to be underpinned by causation
Determinism is all about causation
Psychologists need to be able to prove that something has caused a behaviour

Question 22

what is the nature-nurture debate

Answer 22

The debate can be summed up in a question?
“Does behaviour stem from the genetic make-up of the person or do they learn it through experience?”

It is a debate about the origins of behaviour - where does it come from

Question 23

Nature

Answer 23

a.k.a nativism

Question 24

Nurture

Answer 24

a.k.a empiricism

Question 25

What is the interactionist approach and what is its stance on the nature nurture debate?

Answer 25

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Question 26

What is the relative importance of heredity and environment in determining behaviour

Answer 26

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Question 27

How can the relative importance of heredity and environment in determining behaviour be established?

Answer 27

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Question 28

Holism

Answer 28

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Question 29

Reductionism

Answer 29

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Question 30

Biological reductionism

Answer 30

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Question 31

Environmental (stimulus-response) reductionism

Answer 31

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Question 32

Levels of explanation in psychology

Answer 32

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Question 33

Discuss biological reductionism

Answer 33

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Question 34

Discuss environmental (stimulus-response) reductionism

Answer 34

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Question 35

Idiographic

Answer 35

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Question 36

Nomothetic

Answer 36

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Question 37

Gives examples of idiographic from your topics

Answer 37

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Question 38

Give examples of nomothetic from your choices

Answer 38

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Question 39

Examples of the ethical implications of research studies and theories

Answer 39

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Question 40

Examples of the ethical implications of research studies and theories specifically references to social sensitivity

Answer 40

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Question 41

What are the 3 ways in which gender bias can occur?

Answer 41

Gender bias can occur in 3 ways:

1. Research involves all male samples and results are generalised to women or seen as universal, when this may not be the case.
2. Male behaviour is seen as the standard -
   This called androcentrism which is the belief that male behaviour is the norm/default and that female behaviour is the non-typical version of normal behaviour.
3. Emphasis on biological differences
   Leads to ignoring the role of other factors such as social or environmental. Any biological theory automatically implies differences in the behaviour of both sexes, as the anatomical differences between males and females is acknowledged.

Question 42

What is the free will and determinism debate about?

Answer 42

The free will and determinism debate is a consideration about how much control we have over our behaviour

Question 43

Give examples of research that have alpha bias.

Answer 43

Example: Freud’s theory of moral development says that women have a weaker ability to stop wrong behaviour/a weaker conscience because women do not fully develop their superego; making them more likely to commit crimes

Example: theory of mate preferences says that men look for youth and attractiveness in a partner while women look for wealth and status; these are narrow categories that don’t always apply; research suggests that there may be more similarities than differences between male and female partner preferences

It is possible that males and females actually value the same attributes. Buss and Schmidt demonstrated that males and females scored equally on intelligence and as important traits in partners

Example: Gender differences in coping with stress could be social determined by the fact that men are not encouraged to discuss… rather than an innate trait only specific to women. Not al women will discuss their issues or seek social support

Question 44

Give examples of research that have beta bias.

Answer 44

Example: the fight-or-flight response is viewed as universal but research has shown that women are more likely to tend-and-befriend; women have a slightly different reaction to stress – i.e. seek social support

Question 45

Give examples of research that involve biological determinism

Answer 45

Example: A potential area where genetics may influence behaviour is in forensic psychology

Example: brain physiology and behaviour
areas of localisation indicate that certain areas of the brain are responsible for certain behaviour and damage to these areas may cause a change in behaviour, seen with

Example: biochemistry and behaviour
dopamine hypothesis in schizophrenia and the role of testosterone in aggression

Question 46

Give examples of research that involve cultural bias.

Answer 46

Example: Ainsworth’s research into attachment types

Question 47

Evaluate

Answer 47

Bias is very hard to avoid

Gender can alter the outcomes of research

Question 48

What is the nativist point of view?

Answer 48

The nativist point of view is the nature side of the debate
The view that we are born with:
innate abilities
predispositions
pre-programmed behaviour

Question 49

Where does support for the nativist view come from?

Answer 49

Support for the nativist view comes from the filed of biology, specifically genetics with twin studies also offering support