State Building, Expansion, and Conflict, 1900 to Present (Part 2) Flashcards
1
Q
~Cold War
A
● Most of the world was divided into hostile camps, led by the US and the USSR
● Resulted in a nuclear arms race and the creation of massive military-industrial complexes that still operate today
● State of rivalry that came to exist between the US and the USSR
2
Q
~Decolonization
A
● Deprived the European powers of their empires
● Sometimes through peaceful negotiation
● Sometimes through violent separation
● Dozens of new nations were formed in Asia, Africa and the Pacific
3
Q
~Al-Qaeda terrorist attack
A
● September 11, 2001
● Began a new global struggle
● The US-led war on terror, which sparked wars in Iraq and Afghanistan and more generally sharpened tensions between the West and the Islamic world
● Masterminded by Osama bin Laden
4
Q
~United Nations (UN)
A
● Came into being at war’s end and was designed to be stronger and more durable than the League of Nations
5
Q
~Yalta Conference
A
● A key wartime summit in early 1945 to transform Eastern Europe into a Soviet sphere of influence
● Disagreements arose between the Soivets and the Anglo-Americans
6
Q
~Bretton Woods system
A
● Soviets refused to take part in it
● Created by the Anglo-Americans to facilitate free trade after the war
7
Q
~Non-aligned movement
A
● Formed in 1961, tahnks largely to major players like Gamal Nasser of Egypt, President Sukarno of Indonesia, India’s Jawaharlal Nehru and Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana
● Eventually came to include 120 states, although formal cooperation among them was not extensive
● Many members ended up aligning with one superpower or another
8
Q
~Arms race
A
● The Cold War gave birth to the largest arms race
● Complete with nuclear arsenals, and while the US and USSR neve went to war with each other, an estimated 50 million people died in the dozens of small and medium-size conflicts that were ofught worldwide during the Cold War
9
Q
~Iron curtain
A
● Descent of Soviet power over Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Albania (until 1961), and eastern hal fo Germany
● Appeared poised to exapnd into Iran, Turkey and Greece, which would have brough the USSR closer to the oil fields of the Middle East and vital waterway of the easter Meidterranean
10
Q
~Containment
A
● The US strategy divised by the diplomat George Kennan
● Contain communism
11
Q
~Truman Doctrine
A
● US committed politically to containment in 1947
● Pledged assistance to Greece and Turkey and any and all countries whose political stability is threatened by communism
12
Q
~Marshall Plan
A
● Pumped more than $13 billion of aid and investment into a Europe in dire need of reconstruction
● Containment
● Reduce economic desperation, made the spread of communism less likely
13
Q
~Berlin Blockade of 1948
A
● Soviets suddenly cut off highway and rail traffic between West Berlin and the western half of Germany
● Easy for the Soviets to stop ground transport without provoking violence, but when the US began to fly airplanes through Soviet-controlled airspace to West Berlin, Stalin faced a choice: allow the flights to continue or shoot the airplanes down and start an actual war
● The Soviets backed down, seeming to validate hte containment strategy
14
Q
~North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
A
● The US committed militarily to the Cold War in 1949
● A strategic alliance that bound America to Canada, Britain and nine other European states, and whose membership steadily grew over time
15
Q
~Warsaw Pact
A
● The Soviets created their own militay bloc to oppose NATO
16
Q
~First Soviet atomic-bomb test
A
● Erased America’s edge in military technolgoy in 1949
17
Q
~Communist victory in the People’s Republic of China (PRC)
A
● Rbought Mao Tse-tung to power as a new ally of the USSR
● China’s Nationalist regime fled to Taiwan, which remains non-communist to this day, ahotugh the PRC claims it as its own
18
Q
~Korean War (1950-1953)
A
● Encouraged by Mao and supported in a morelimited way by Stalin, the comunist northern part of Korea attempted to conquer the southern half, which was defended by a UN army led by the US
● Containment, but for potentially hgiher stakes than in Berlin
● Confined to the peninsula
19
Q
~Domino principle
A
● The belief that if one country in a region fell to comunism, the rest would too
● America’s involvement were based on this
20
Q
~Third World countries
A
● Less developed and/or newly decolonized nations
● Many sought to remain neutral or unaligned
● Most were open to superpower influence, as were national-liberation movements worldwide
21
Q
~Proxy wars
A
● Fighting a war by using proxy
● Korean War
● Vietname War
22
Q
~Cuban Revolution (1959)
A
● Heightened tensions by placeing a communist regime and Soveit ally less than 100 miles off the US coast
23
Q
~Vietnam wars (1945-1975)
A
● Began with the liberation of Indochina from French colonization and continued with the division of Vietnam
● After France’s defeat in 1954, America attempted to prop up the unpopulat southern regime against invastion by the communist north
● The US effort took a sharp turn for the worse in 1968 and ended with withdrawal in 1973, opening hte way for communist victory in 1975
24
Q
~Nikita Khrushchev
A
● Less hard-line leader replacing Stalin after his death in 1953
25
~Suez Crisis of 1956
● Britian, France and Israel reacted to Egypt's nationalization fo the Suez Canal with a military invastion, the Ameircans, seeking to avert a wider Middle Eastern war, cooperated with the Soviets against their own allies, forcing htem to withdraw from Egypt
26
~Hungarian uprising
● In 1956, Hungary attempted to reform its communist regim and restore ties with the West
● USSR intervened and sparked a Hugnarian uprising that Khrushchev brutally supressed
27
~Berlin Wall
● Most tangible embodiment of the iron curtain
| ● Soviets built this in 1961, angered by the flight of AMerican U-2 planes over the USSR
28
~Cuban Missile Crisis
● Khrushchev attempted to install nuclear missles in Cuba
● In October, 1962, JFK successfully countered Khrushchev's move with a naval blockade of Cuba
● Brought the superpoers closest to nucelar war
29
~Leonic Brezhnev
● More authoritarian but less erratic Leonid Brezhnev replaced Khrushchev in 1964
● Cuban Missle Crisis played a key role in the forced retirement
30
~Prague Spring
● In 1968, Brezhnev reaffirmed the Soviet sphere of influence in EUorpe by sending Warsaw Pact troops in Czechoslovakia to put down the pro-reform Proague Spring movement
● he justified this invastion with Brezhnev doctrine
31
~Brezhnev doctrine
● Asserting the USSR's right to protect communism in Eastern Europe
32
~Strategic parity
● Each had roughly the same quantity of weapons
| ● Each had developed hte nuclear triad
33
~Nuclear triad
● The ability to drop nuclear bombs from airplanes, launch nuclear warheads on interncontinental ballistic missles (ICBMs) and fire nuclear missiles from submarines
34
~Deterrence
● Nuclear weapons were too destructive to contemplate using except under extreme circumstances
● Mutually assured destruction
35
~Mutually assured destruction (MAD)
● As long as each side remained convinced that rash action would destroy it as wellas its enemy, both sides would avoid doinganything that might trigger a serious crisis
● Viewed paradoxically by a number of strategists as a way to preserve peace between the superpowers
36
~Economic cost of Cold War
● Eisenhower warmed of the permanent domination fo the uS economy by a military-industrial complex
● Khrushchev in the USSR complained about weapons as "metal-eaters" devouring resoruces htat could be put to better use
37
~Anti-nuclear movement
● By the 1960s and 1970s
● Formed in Europe and Norht America, protesting the expense of nuclear weapons, the inherent dangers they posed, and hte environmental and human damage cuased by nuclear-weapon testing
● Led by Committe for Nuclear Disarmamnet (CND) and Greenpeace
38
~Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
● Not strictly anti-nuclear
● Has stirven since 1945 to educate the public about hte daners of nucear weapons, with every issue featuring a doomsday clock to show how close to midnight (nuclear war) the world is at any given point
39
~Space race
● Associated with hyperpatriotic pride and military rivalry
● USSR put the first human-mad object into space (1957) and lauched hte first successful human space flight (1961)
●US accomplished hte first moon landing in 1969
40
~Detente
● A more peaceful phase between 1969 and 1979
● USSR was motivated by fears of Sino-Soviet split
● US war wearied by the Vietnam conflict and weakened by the global recession of hte 1970s
41
~Sino-Soviet splie
● China and USSR grew increasingly hostile
| ● Nixon visited China in 1972, as part of his skillful exploitation of the split
42
~Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (1968-1969)
● Signed the Cold War's first substantial arms-control agreements
- Strategic Arms Limitations Treaty (1972)
● Joined forced in space, during the joint Apollo-Soyuz mission of 1975
43
~Soviet invastion of Afghanistan (1979)
● Animosity resumed betwen US and USSR
● Soviet's puspoe was to safeguard against Islamic fundamentalism, but seemed to threaten the oil supplies of hte Middlee East
44
~Sandinista revolution in Nicaragua (1979)
● Another point of tension
| ● Soviets supported it
45
~Mikhail Gorbachev
● A liberal reformer who took over USSR in 1985
● He was unwilling to use force to prop up Eastern Europe's communist revimes and he realized as well that the inefficient Soviet system could no longer afford to kep up with the arms race or continue fighting in Afghanistan
46
~Fall of the Berlin War
● Symbolizes the end of Cold War in November 1989
| ● Reunification fo Germany followed in 1990
47
~Anti-Soviet nationalism
● Surged upward among the USSR's non-RUssian ethnic minorities
● USSR itself collpased in late 1991
48
~Decolonization and national liberation
● Dozens of new nations came into being, having attained freedom from their imperial amsters between the 1940s and the 1970s
● Represented an astrounding shift in the balance of global power away from Europe and toward the rest of hte world
49
~Bandung Conference 1955
● Hosted by Indonesia
● Brought together 29 nations, most of them recently decolonized, that were interested in staying neutral during the Cold War and opposing imperialism or neocolonizalism of any kind
● Helped to give birth to the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM)
50
~Sovietization of Eastern Europe
● Followed quickly after WWII
● Consisting of the industrilization and naitonalization fo the economy, the collectivization of agriculture, and installation fo secret polic forces and prsion camps
● Both Eastern Europe and USSR recovered form the war quickly and the region enjoyed substantial economic growth between the early 1950s and early 1970s
51
~Social welfare systems
● Provided educcation, medical care, pensions, and other basic services to all citizens
52
~Chernobyl disaster of 1986
● An example of catastrophic caused by half a century of careless nad unregulated industrialization in East Europe
53
~De-Stalinization
● Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev began this with his secret speech of 1956 which criticized Stalin's purges
● Refomrs were sporadic and limited and they were scaled back by Dkrushchev's more dictatorial replacement, Leonic Brezhnev
54
~Brezhnev stagnation
● In the 1970s, as Western Europe suffered through its own economic criss, the Soviet bloc entered a steady economic and administrative decline
55
~Dissident movment
● At the same time of Brezhnev stagnation, dissident movements began to arise throughout the region
● Kept firmly udner control for the time being
● Only in the 1980s would real change make itself felt
56
~Middle or third way capitlism
● Blending capitalism and elements of socialism
| ● Invovled nationalizing certain sectors of hte economy, typically transport, communications, or utilities
57
~Economic union/European Coal and Steel Community
● Long process that began with the 1952 birth of hte European Coal and Steel Community (Belgium, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, France and West Germany)
● Took shape in 1957-1958 when the same nations formed the European Econoic Community (EEC)
58
~European Economic Comunity (EEC)
● Eliminate tariffs and allow the freer movement of goods and services
● Brtian, Ireland, and Denmark joined in 1973
● Greece, Spain and Portugal were admitted in the 1980s
59
~European Union (EU)
● By the mid-1990s, EEC reconstituted itself as EU with 15 members
● Many members of the EEC/EU also participated in the NATO alliance
60
~1968 protests
● With May's Paris riots by students and workers standinga longside the Prague Spring as Europe's most famous and msot disruptive
● Generational chagne, combined with discontent over the Cold War and wars of decolonization made Euorpe uvlnerable ot the globalw ave of protests
61
~Terrorism
● Arose in the 1960s and 1970s as a persistent problem, sometimes as a manifestation of left-wing extremism
- Italy's Red Brigades, who kidnapped and killed the prime minister in 1976
● Sometimes as a strategy pursued by separatist movements
- Basque ETA, fighting to be rid of Spanish rule
- Irish Republican Army (IRA), a Catholic paramilitary trying to wrest mostly Protestant Northern Ireland from British rule and unite it with the Republic of Ireland
62
~Global economic crisis of the 1970s
● Stagnation--slow growth combined with inflation
| ● Costs of Europe's social welfare systems became harder to sustain
63
~Free-market policies
● Retreating in part from the social welfare systems of the past, defying labro unions, and privatizing many state-run sectors of the economy
● RIght-wing conservatives pursue this policies
- Margaret Thatcher in Britain and Helmut Kohl in West Germany
- Even France's first socialist president, Francois Mitterand was compelled to adopt austeiry measures of this sort
64
~Solidarity
● Trade union in Poland led by Lech Walesa
● Spearheaded a decade-long protest movement that united workers, intellectuals, and Catholic clergy, despite being driven underground after 1981
65
~Pope John Paul II
● Orginially from Poland
| ● Did much support anti-Soviet agitation in Eastern Euorpe
66
~Perestroika
● Restructuring the economic system and allowing limited capitalism
● Similar to what Dng Xiaoping was attempting in Communist China
● One of Gorbachev's reform effort
● Failed because he did not pursue economic change aggressively enough
67
~Glasnost
● Openness, emaning greater freedom of opinion and the media
● One of Gorbachev's reform efofrt
● Allowed public discontent to undermine him when things went awry
68
~Turkey, Iran and Israel
● Turkey and Iran ontinued the programs of secularism and modernization that they had begun during the interwar period
● New state of Isral, foudned as a Jewish homeland in 1948, not only did the same but also democratized
69
~Organization of Petroluem Exporting Countries (OPEC)
● Foudned in 1960
| ● Consists largely of states from the Middle East
70
~Islamic fundamentalism
● Hindered modernization and democratization
| ● Negatively affected the status of women and increased tensions between Sunni and Shiite Muslim
71
~Arab-israli conflict
● Diplomatically divdied the entire region and gave rise to persistent violence nad terorism
72
~Gamal Nasser
● Defied the West by seizing control of foreign-owned industries and businesses
● Nationalization of the Suez Canal in 1956
● Temporarily strnegthened ties with the USSR, whose advisers rbought technology and weaponry to Egypt and assisted with constructing the monumental Aswan High Dam
73
~Anwar Sadat and Hosni Mubarak
● Those ruling after Nasser drew closer tides with the US
● Among Arab leaders, the first to recognized Irael in 1978
● Both men's concerns about rising Islamic fundamentalism persuaded them to continue Nasser's tradition of authoritarian rule
74
~Pan-Arabism
● Nasswer promoted hte ideology
● The notion that Arab identity transcends national boundaries left over form Ottoman and European imperialism
● Arabs should be united under a single state
75
~United Arab Republic
● nasser tried to form it with nations like Iraq and Syria
| ● Ex of Pan-Arabism
76
~Muammar Gaddafi of Libya
● Lao attempted pan-Arabism but except in the case of hte tiny United Arab Emirates, such schemes have always collapsed
77
~Arab League
● many states, currently more than 20, have been joined since 1945
● An influential regional association
78
~Establishment of Palestine
● British who took custody of Palestine after the collapse of Ottoman power there, announced hteir support for such a paln in Balfour Declaration o 1917 but dlayed their decision during the 1920s and 1930s to avoid Arab unrest
● Holocause created enough international sympathy for the partition of Palestine to go forward
79
~Six-Day War (1967) and Yom Kippur War (1973)
● Military action ont he part of Arab states repeatedly eell short
● Two notable examples
● Each time, Israel, with superbly trained, highly motinvated armed forces and strong backing form the US, dfeated Arab forces, gaining new territories with each conlifict
80
~Palestinian terrorism
● Palestinians themselves turned to terrorism, especially after 1964, when Yasser Arafat founded the Palestinina Liberation Organization (PLO)
81
~Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO)
● Attacks increased in frequency
● Assassination fo Israeli athlets at the Munich Summer Olympics in 1972
● PLO and other terrorist groups, such as Palestinian radicals in Hamas and Lebanon-based Shiite group Hezbollah stepped up their attacks
82
~Camp David accords of 1978
● When Anwar Sadat of Egypt encouraged by Jimmy Carter, agreed to recognize Israel in exchange for hte return of the Sinai Peninsula, which Israel had seized in 1967
● Other moderate Arab states follwed Egypt's lead over the next few years
83
~(First) Intifada
● Thoroughout the 1980s, the Palestinian population fo Israel staged a continuous uprising
● Protesting what they considered to be apartheid-like discrimination
● Demonstrations sometimes result in bloodshed
84
~Oslo accords of 1993
● held out the promise of a two-state solution, but foudnered in 2000-2001, leading to a Second Intifada and continued strife
85
~Mohammed Reza Pahlavi
● Last of the secular, modernizing Pahlavi shah in Iran
● Governed from 1941 to 1979
● Used oil wealth to industrialize the country and opposed Islamic fundamentalism, encouraging Western dress, Western education, the unveiling of wmen and hte eradication fo Sharia law
● Authoritarian, relying on torture and secret police repression to maintain order
86
~Ayatollah Khomeini
● The Shiite cleric in 1979 retuned to Iran and took control while Pahlavi sough medical treatment and died of cancer
● An Islamic fundamentalist the shah had exiled years before
87
~Iranian Revolution
● Trasnfomred the country into an anti-Western theocracy in which an elected government came to coexist with authoritarian clerics who held read power and ecided ahed of time which candidates could run for office
88
~Iran ostage crisis (1979-1981)
● Damaged American prestige and permanently soured US-Iranian relations
89
~Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988)
● Caused more than half a milliont otal deaths and devastated both nations
90
~Saddam Hussein
● Iraq's ruler duirng the Iran-Iraq Qar
● Hi Sunni Baath party came to power in 1979
● Originally sponsored by the US becaue of his opposition to Iran and the USSR, Hussein turned his brutaility against his own people and his enighbors
● He used oison gas, drafted teengaers for combat and targeted cvilians during hte Iran-Iraq War
● Persecuted Ira's Kudish minority
● Invaded the oil-rich Kuwait in 1990 and appeard ready to move against Saudi Arabia
91
~Gulf War (1991)
● A US-led coalition launched Operation Desert Storm to push Hussien out of Kuwait
● Between 1991 and Hussein's overthrow in 2003, the international community strove to contrain Iraq and prevent its development of weapons of mass destruction
92
~Decolonization in Africa
● Began during the 1950s and 1960s
● Transitions ot freedom varied wildly, depending on whether the colonial power pulled out peacefully or had to be expelled by force, and also on whether they new state was able to aovid ethnic violence
93
~Algeian war of independence from France (1954-1962)
● Proved agonizingly violent, because the French regarded Algeria as literally part of their country and refused to part with it
● Both sides resorted to turture and violence against civilians and defeat in Algeria led ot hte fall of the Fourth Republic, which had governed France since the end of WWII
94
~Decolonization in sub-Saharan Africa
● Britain and France presided over relatively smooth transitions to freedom, trainint native elites nad working to minimize hte possibility of internal conflict
95
~Kwame Dkrumah
● Dreamed idealistically of a united Africa, peaceful and prosperious
● Key leader in Ghana that was transformed from the Gold Coast's negotiation of freedom from Brtiain in 1957
96
~Kenya independence
● Jomo Kenyatta pursued nonviolence on the paht to Kenyan independence from Btiatin in 1963
● Radical Mau Mau movement killed almost 2000 people there during the 1950s
97
~Angola and Mozambique independence
● Both fought bitter wars of independenc from Portugal, a notoriously exploitative imperial master
● Both of these struggles (1961-1975) and (1969-1975) gave way imediately after their conclusion to lengthy civil wars between communist and non-communist forces
98
~Angola
● The US backed UNITA movement raised more than $3.5 billion for its war effort by selling diamonds, becoming the first to rpompt an outcry against hte international trad in conflict diamonds or blood diamonds
- Diamonds extracted under slavelike conditions in Liberia and Sierra Leone caused even more distress in the 1990s and 2000s
99
~Rwanda
● By the time Belgiu pulled out of Rwanda in 1962, its divide-and-conquer tactics had artificially exacerbated hatred between two tribes, the Hutu and Tutsi and the potential for bloodshed between them simmered
100
~Religious division in North Africa
● Muslims and Arbas in Nroth Africa supprssed minorities like the desert Berbers and the Darfurians of souther Sudan
101
Congo
● When Belgium freed the Congo, postindependnece violence was so pervasive form 1960 to 1964 that eh UN had to intervene
● The prime minister, Patrice Lumumba, was killed in 1961
102
Biafra secessionist movement
● Began in 1967 as the Igbo people of southeast Nigeria attempted to separate from Nigeria, which had gained its freedom from Britain in 1960
● By the time Nigerai reabsorbed Biafra in 1970, over a million people had died in combat or as a result of famine
103
South Africa
● The most prosperious, most industrialized and most technologically advanced country in Africa
● One of the world's richest sources of gold and diamonds
● Deeply racist--white-black tensions
104
Apartheid policy
● in 194, as an autonomous dominion within the British Commonwealth, South Africa adopted its notorious apartheid policy
● Segregate blacks and coloured (other non-whites, including a sizable Indian minority_ and deprive them of the vote
105
Anti-Apartheid movement
● Including the Zulu Confederation, the African National Congress (ANC) and other groups
● Arosed in the 1950s and called for an end to discrimination in the 1955 Freedom Charter
106
Sharpeville massacre of 1960
● The killing of almost 70 unarmed protesters during it further galvanized hte movement, and ANC president Albert Luthuli won the Nobel Peace Prize
107
Nelson Mandela
● South Afircan government struck back with a series of treason trails, iprisoning leaders like ANC's Mandla
● Remianed in jail between 1964 and 1990
108
Republic of South Africa
● In 1961, South African whites voted to withdraw from the British Commonwealth and proclaimed the Republic of South Africa, largely in response to British criticism of their racial policies
109
Dictatorship and corruption in Africa
● many of Africa's governments degenerated into strongman regimes
● Joseph Mobutu in Congo/Zaire (1965-1997)
● Idi Admin, who ruled Uganda from 1971 to 1979 and killed 300,000 people, many from rival tribes
● Political elites often milked profits from natural resources like gold, diamonds, and oil fro themselves, rather than using them for hte bettermen of the country
● Brbery, nepotism, and tribal favoritism ran rampant
110
Lack of cultural and ethnolinguistic unity in Africa
● Most of Arica's boundary lines were drawn by European colonizers with no regard for tribal or ethnic territorial claims, leaving most African states with a confusing variety of cultures, languages, and religions
● This made governance difficult even if groups were not hostile toward each other
111
Ethnic violence and constant armed conflict in Africa
● Warfare in Africa was near-constant, although most were fought within national boundaries
● Someties the Cold War restrained such violence
● In othercases, Africna nations, or rival factions within naitons, became pawns in the global chess game between the US and the USSR
● By the end of the Cold War, Africa was awash in the uncontrolled flow of light weapons, and hte horrific practice of conscripting thousands of child soldiers
112
Health-related crises in Africa
● From the 1980s onward, the HIV/AIDS virus, which orginated in Africa, has killed millions
● Funding for treatment is perennially low, and unprotected sex has caused hte virus to spread like wildfire among heterosexual populations as well as homosexual ones
● Older diseases like malaria nd sleeping sicknessa re still widespread
● population growth far outstripped economic growth and agricultural production and famines ramined common
- WOsr were in Somalia and Ethiopid during the 1980s
113
Post-WWII Japan and relation with US
● Forced by defeat in WWII to rebuild completely
● Emerged as a surprise economic powerhouse
● US occupied Japan during the 1940s, demilitarizing and democratizing it, although the emperor kept his place ont he throne as a symbolic figurehead
- America invested in it heavily and maintained a large military presence ont he island of Okinawa
114
Liberal Democratic Party (LDO)
● Moderately conservative party that dominated hte Japanese Diet
● Promoted economic growth by fostering a culture of hard work, discipline and selfless effort
115
Zaibatsu corporations
● Played a significant role in Japan
● At its peak during the 1980s, Japan's economcy (the tiger of Asia) was the world's third most productive nad its social welfare na educational systems were top-notch
116
Little tigers
● Joining Japna in prospeirty
● Taiwan and South Korea and Hong Kong and Singapore
● Both developed high-tech productive economies, but remained mildly authoritarin until Chiang's death in 1975 and South Korea's liberalization in the 1980s
● Both were staunch anti-communist allies of the US, even after hte US govenremnt established diplomatic ties with Communist China
117
People's Republic of China (PRC)
● Established in 1949 by Mao Tse-tung
● Bad been the most populous communist nation on earth for more than half a century
● Appealing to China's vast peasant populace instead of relying solely on proletarian support, Mao easily defeated Chiang Kai-shek after WWII, driving his Nationalist governemnt to Taiwan, which still remains politically separate from the mainland
● China was ruled by Mao until his death in 1976
118
Mao Tse-tung social and eocnomic reforms
● At the start, he seemed satisfied with pragmatic social and economic reforms
● His New Democracy of the arly 1950s was greeted with enthusiasm, as were his initial land reforms
● Five-Year Plan
● Collectivization of agriculture began in 1955 but was at first carried out more gradually than in Stalin's USSR
119
Five-Year Plan (1953-1958)
● Imitated hte Soviet model
| ● lEd to industrial growth
120
Mao's radical transformaiton of society
```
● Included persecution of dissenters and so-called class enemies (members of hte bourgeoisie or aristocracy) was harsh
● Pressed too quickly for further modernization at the end of hte 1950s
```
121
Great Leap Forward
● In 1958 it industrialized on a more grandiose scale than the Five-year Plan, and it intensified hte collectivization of agriculture, calling for an unrealistic increase in food production
● THe stress and confusion led to chaos and breakdown in industry and agriculture collasped altogether
● Resulting famine killed millions in 1959 and 1960
● Halted in 1960 but embarked on another program
122
Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution
● Radical program started in 1966 and lasted until 1976
● Generally interpreted as a way for Mao and his wife, Jiang Qing, to strike at their political enemies
● Sought to instill absolute revolutionary purity within Chinese culture
● Censorship and indoctrination were crushingly heavy and young comunist activists, knwon as Red Guards, rampaged through the country, denouncing anyone they considered untrue to revolutionary ideals
● Victims were harassed, demoted, often sent to labor camps for reeducation and somteims executed
● ended with Mao's death in 1976
123
Deng Xiaoping
● Defeated Mao's widow and her radical allies and rose to pwoer in 1978
● A Modernizer but also a pragmatist more concerned with China's well-being than with commitment to abstract Marxist ideals
124
Deng's economic reforms
● Returned a measure of collectivized land to the farmers and allowed limited capitalism, much like Gorbachev's program of perestroika in the USSR, but faster and more permissive
● Allowed certain levels of private trade and crated special economic zones where communist regulations did not apply
● As a result, China experienced huge economic growth throughout the 1980s, including rising wages and an improved standards of living and this trend has continued ever since
125
Tiananmen Square protest
● In May 1989, when Chinese students gathered at Tiananmen Square in Beijing, demanding political freedoms to match their newfound economic ones
● Deng refused to grant any concessions and when the students disobeyed the orders to disperse, he crusehd hte demonstrations by sending in tanks
● China's communsit authorities have pursued this same combination of political strictness and economic liberalization
126
The Philipines
● Promised independence by the US during WWII and received it in 1946
127
Independence for India and Pakistan
● Although bloodshed quickly followed in freedom's wake in 1947
● UDring WWII, national-liberationist pressures from the Indian National Congress and the All-India Muslim League made it obvious that the British could no longer hold on to India
● Riots and violent clashes between Muslims and Hindus sped up the British timetable for withdrawal and independence wa granted in August 1947
128
Indian National Congress
● The party of Mohandas Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru
129
All-India Muslim Leageu
● led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah
130
Indo-Pakistani partition
● Hindu-Muslim conflict over the terms cost at least a million lives over hte next month, created nuerous refugees and resutled in the assassination of Gandhi in 1948 by a Hindu extremist who opposed his rhetoric of toleration between the two fiaths
● Occasional border wars have broken out over hte Kashmir frontier zone, and hte development of nuclear-weapons capability by both nations has made this conflic even tense
131
Pakistan
● Under Jinnah and his successors, Pakistan became a modern Islamic republic and a major regional power
● Becmae mired in corruption and military authoritarianism during the Cold War and has spent decades locked in a costly and dangerous rivalry with India
● Decisively chose sides during the COld War, pursuing a firm alliance with the US
132
India
● Transformed itself into the world's largest democracy but suffered administrative inefficiency, great difficulty in balancing economic growht with population gorwth and interethnic and interfaith strife
133
Congress Party
● Dominant political force in free Indai
● Led by Jawaharlal Nehru, who served as Idnia's prime minister from 1947 until his death in 1964
● Unlike Gandhi, who had favored traditional values and economic simplicity, Nehru worked to secularize, modernize, and industrialize India
● Negotiated a tightrope, neighbor to a hostile China and an even more hostile Pakistan but not wishing to be a client of hte Soviets, the British or the Americans
● maintianed a friendly relationship with the USSR without actually falling tinto the Soviet camp
● Leader of the non-aligned movment
134
Indira Gandhi
● From 1966 to 1975 and again from 1977 to 1984, Nehru's daughter was prime minister
● She continued her father's policies of modernization and diplomatic nonalignment
● Religious strife was her downfall
● her govenrment's actions against the Skih minority of Punjab provoked Sikh soldiers to assassinate her
135
Rajiv Gandhi
● Indira Gandhi's son served as prime minister from 1984 to 1991 but he was killed by Sri Lankan separatists
136
Sukarno
● Leader of the Indonesian Nationalist Party began a war of nationalist liberation in 1945 against hte Dutch East Indies
● Founded the new nation of Indonesia with the Dutch gone
● At first, he governed democratically, but he grew authoritarian over time
137
Indonesia
● Although 80% Muslim, Indonesia is a spraling archipelago consisting of 18000 islands, and its bewildering ethnic and linguistic diversity makes it challenging to govern
138
Bandung Conference of 1955
● Helped establish the Non-Aligned Movement by hosting the conference and went much farther than Nehru in India or even Nasser in Egypt in calling for the Third World to defy the West
139
Indonesian Communist Party
● Sukarno drew closer to the party until 1965, when the army, allied with conservative Muslims, staged a coup against him that killed as many as half a million people, mainly comunists
● Forced Sukarno's resignation in 1967
140
Suharto
● From 1967 until 1998, Indonesia was governed by the military strongman
● Anti-communist dictator who promoted economic growth and alliance with the US, but also compiled a record of frequent huan-right abuses
141
Indochina
● French colony composed of Veitnam, Laos, and Cambodia
● Lost to Japanese occupation during WWII, French hoped to reimpose their authority in 1945 but ehy were foiled by the national-liberation war launched that September by the Ho Chi Minh
142
Ho Chi Minh
● Vietnamese communist who launched the national-liberation war against France
143
National-liberation war in Indochina
● The French, with US support, tried until 1954 to keep Indochina, but were defeated by Vietnamese expertise in guerrilla warfare nad hte relative popularity of Ho Chi Minh's policies, which included land reform and appeals to anti-French nationalism
● Laos and Cambodia went free in 1953 and Vietnam was temporarily divided into a northern communist zone and a southern non-communsit zone
144
Ngo Dinh Diem
● French-educated, Catholic, US-backed leader of South Vietnam kept delyaing the leection that was to unite the two Veitnams
● Fearing that the Buddhist, anti-French peasant masses would vote against him
● Violence broke out by 1959
145
Thich Quang Duc
● One fo the clearest signs of opposition to Diem came in 1963
● The Buddhist monk Thich Quang Duc publicly committed suicide by self-immolation, or burning himself to death publicly in the capital
146
Tet Offensive
● In 1968, the communists caught the Americans and South Vietnamese badly offf guard with this
● Although US forces withstood that blow, war weariness caused America to scale back its war effort and withdraw completly in 1973
147
Communist Vietnam
● Communsit victory over the entirety of Veitnam followed in April 1975
● Severity of communist rule tempered somewhat during the 1980s, especially with the implementation of hte doi moi reofrms of 1986
148
Doi moi reforms of 1986
● Renovation reforms
| ● Allowed for limited capitalism along the lines of Den Xiaoping's reforms in China
149
Southeast Asian Treaty Organization (SEATO)
● Meant as a counterpart to NATO but in fact much weaker
● Between 1955 and 1977, Western powers like the US, Britian and France allied with Australia, New Zealand, Pakistan, Thailand, and hte Philipines
150
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)
● Founded in 1967 by Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand and the Philippines
● Boost economic and security cooperation
● Since expanded to include other members, including Vietnam
151
Organization of American States (OAS)
● Founded in 1948 and headquartered in Washington, D.C.
● Fostered economic and diplomatic cooperation throughout the region, although cynics were inclined to see it as a tool for enforcing the US sphere of influence in the western hemisphere
152
Argentina
● Military rule was established here during WWII
● In 1946, the charismatic officer Juan Peron came to dominate the government by appealing to the poor
● He was aidd by his wife, Eva Peron
● Modernization program of the 1950s borrowed heavily from Mussolini's brand of fascism and state capitalism
● Overthrown by his army in 1955, he fled to Spain but returned in 1973, serving as president until his death in 1974
153
Eva Peron
● Enjoyed enormous appeal among the lower-class descamisados
154
National Reorganization Process
● A brutal military regime ruled form 1976 to 1983 in Argentina
● Ruthlessly puring leftists and dissidents in the dirty war and cuasing the deaths of perhaps 30,000 including numerous desaparecidos, or disappeared ones who were secretly arrested and never seen again
155
Chile
● In 1973, Gneeral Augusto Pinochet backed by the US CIA, led a coup against Salvador Allende, a Marxist who had been democratically elected in 1970
● Arrested thousands of leftists and suspected opponents, torturing 30,000 and killing or disappearing over 3000
● Instituted a free-market program, on the advice of Chicago boys
● Stepped down in favor of a democratically elected governemnt in 1990
● Left hte country but was later arrested; he was on trial for human-rights abuses and corruption when he died in 2006
156
Chicago boys
● Economists whose influence exercised over by Milton Friedman of hte University of Chicago
157
Guatemala
● in 1954, nearly a decade of democratically elected reformist rule came to an end with a CIA-supported coup that brought the general Carlos Castillo Armas to power
● A succession of military dictators followed until hte mid-1990s, each of them suppressing leftist rebels and ethnic minorities with brute force
● THe regime perpetrated an anti-Mayan genocide in the 1980s
158
Mexico
● Mild authoritarian oligarchy, as opposed to extreme dictatorship
● Maintianed a nominally democratic system that ensured an unbroken string of electoral victories for hte paradoxically naemd Institutiaonal Revolutionary Party (PRI)
● Oil-based wealth during the 1950s and 1960s kept the economy healthy but by the late 1960s and 1970s, economic downturn, gorwing awareness of hte government's corruption and anger among Indians and Mayans becase of popular and official prejudicea ll increased general discontent with the regime's lss than democratic nature
● PRI regime gradually reformed during the 1980s and 1990s
159
1968 protests (Mexico)
● Mexico City was hit hard by the global wave of protests
| ● Emigration to the US, both legal and illegal accelerated int he 1970s and 1980s
160
Cuban Revolution
● Came from the left
● Modernized and narrowed hte gap between rich and poor under Castro
● The government ecame rigidly dictatorial under him, restricint civil liberties and comitting human-right abuses of its own
161
Fidel Castro
● In January 1959, a guerrila force led by him ousted the right-wing dictator Fulgencio Batista
● Initially governed as a non-aligned modernizer, nationalizing industrial secotrs of the economy, carrying out land reform, and combating illiteracy and socioeconomic inequality
● Regarded the US sphere of influence in Latin America as yankee imperialism
● Decalred himself comunist and turned to the USSR for assistance
162
Ernesto Che Guevara
● Marxist second-in-command to Castro
| ● Argentine doctor and intellectural
163
Nicaraguan Revolution of 1979
● The Marxist Sandinista movement overthrew the Somoza clan that had ruled as right-wing dictators since the mid-1930s
● professing commitment to social democracy instead of dictatorship,t he Sandinista regime began with a program of land reform and redistribution of wealht but was quickly distracted y Cold War geopolitics
● Friendliness with USSR unnerved Reagan
164
Contras
● Right-wing counterrevolutionary uerrillas
● Reagan's administration attempted to destabilize the Sandinistas by illegally funding the Contras
● This bloody civil conflict persisted until the end of the Cold War
165
Latin American democratization
● Occurred in the late 1980s and early 1990s
● Tied to economic improvements, and cooling down of the Cold War, which reduced hte superpowers' anxiety about influence in the region
166
Examples of Latin American democratization
● Pinochet gave up power in 1989-1990 (Chile)
● Argentina moved from dictatorship to democracy between 1983 and 1989
● Mexico's PRI loosened its monopoly on power, beginning with the national elections of 1988
● Peace and democracy returned to Nicaragua in 1990
● Anti-Sandinista cadidate, Violeta Chamorro was elected as the country's first female president but he Sandinista have since returned to power via the ballot box
167
New world order
● In 1990 George H.W. Bush proclaimed the collapse of the Cold War was bringing about a new world order
● Characterized by greater peacefulness and hte foreseeable triumph of democratic capitalism worldwide
● End of nuclear arms race lowered hte risk of nucelar annihilation and new freedoms improved lives in many parts of hte world
168
U.S. unilateralism
● The world's remaining superpower has turned out to be limited, not just by the finiteness of its resources but also by the cold peace that has arisen between it and former Cold War foes like Russia and China
169
Boris Yeltisin
● Russia was weakened during the 1990s by the chatic mishandling of Eastern Europe's shock therapy transition to democratic capitalism
170
Vladimir Putin
● Entered a more belligerent phase under hte managed democracy of the authoriarian, nationalistic Vladimir Putin
● Russia has regained much of its strength since 2000
171
Chechen wars of 1990s and early 2000s
● Illustrated Russia's attempt to assert its sphere of influence int he former Soveit Union and also deliberately counter American geoplolitical ambitions
172
China
● Rise to superpower status seems all but inevitable
● Largest populationa nd a huge economy, China is already in a position to assert miltiay power regionally and will soon be able to do so Pacific-wide, if not globally
● Influence on internaitonal trade and finance is titanic
173
Hong Kong, Tibet and Taiwan
● China's reabsorption of Hing Kong in 1997 when Britain's colonial ease expired by treaty went smoothyly
● Its abuses in Tibet are well-documented
● How long it will continue to tolerate the independence of Taiwan, which it regards as a renegade province, not an independnet nation
174
Weapons of mass destruction
● Nuclear, biological and chemical weapons
| ● Only a very few states possess meaningful stockpiles of them
175
Asymmetrical wars
● Jet aircraft, third-generation tanks, helicopter gunships, aircraft carriers and global airlift capacity were seen
● owned only by the superpowers nad the small group of other nations able to afford them
● Have been pitted agianst hte small arms (rifles, launchers and hand-to-hand weapons) that are all most armies and paramilitary groups can afford
176
Revolution in military affaris
● Full itnegraiton of computer technolgoy, satellite communications, and precision-guided weapons into military operation
● Druing the 1990s and ealry 2000s
177
Low-intensity conflict and guerrilla insurgency
● Offered and continue to offer many ways for weaker, more poorly equipped ofrces to frustrate larger, high-tech armies
178
Biological and chemical weapons
● Infectious pathogens like Ebola and anthrax, gases, toxins
| ● Have become easier to manufacture and weaponize
179
Genocide
● Many occasions in the 1990s and 200s
| ● Rwanda nad hte former Yugoslavia
180
Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty
● The only legal members of the nuclear club are hte US, Russia, China, France and Britain
181
Nuclear weapons outside of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty
● Since the late 1960s, Israel has maintained an undeclared nuclear arsenal
● In 1988, India and Pakistan each gained nuclear-weapons capability, making their bitter rivalry more dangerous
● Successful testing of nuclear weapons by North Korea from 2006
● Iran's ongoing efforts to build nuclear weapons
182
World Trade Organization (WTO)
● Formed in 1994 from the General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs (GATT) system
● Also from the International Criinal Court (ICC) that signed into being in 1998 and operating in THe Hague since 2002 to prosecute genocie and other crimes against humanity
183
European Union (EU)
● Formed int he 1990s as a way for the nations of he European Economic Community to coordinate their economic and policymaking efforts even more closely
● Expanded imensely after the collapse of East European communism
● Most of its states adopted hte euro as a common currency in 2002
184
Shock therapy
● Moving as quickly as possible to free-market capitalism proved painful even where it worked well (East Germany, Poland, Czech Republic and hte Baltic states)
● Disastrous in places like Russia, which suffered hyperinflation and hte sudden collapse of once-reliable social welfare system
185
Yugoslav wars (1991-1995, 1998-1999)
● South Slavic tensions, kept under control by the authoritarin Titoist regime, broke loose after the collapse of communism
● As the various states that made up the Yugoslav federation declared independence, opportunistic politicians, especially Slobodan Milosevic exploited nationalist tensions to seize territoy from Croatia and the multiethnic state of Bosnia, home to Orthodox Serbs, Catholic Croats, and Muslim Bosniaks
186
Slobodan Milosevic
● COntrolled most of the former Yugoslavia's armed forces
187
Illegal drug trafficking
● In places like Colombia and the Mexican border can cause enough violence to prove poltically destabilizing
188
Hugo Chavez
● Strongman authoritarianism in oil-rich Venezuela who ruled form 1999 to 2013
● By building solid support among the poorer masses
● Tightly controlling electoral politics and hte mass media
● A part of a pink wave bloc
189
Pink wave bloc
● Includes Nicaragua, Ecuador and Bolivia
| ● All of which oppose what they see as US imperialism and support Cuba, which remains communist under the Castro regime
190
Truth and reconciliation process
● In South AFrica
| ● Healed a measure of hte race-relations damage cuased by dacades of apartheid
191
Rwandan genocide
● Reuslted int he deaths of 800,000 members of the Tutsi minority at the hands of their Hutu rivals in 1994
● Hatred between the two groups had been fostered by Rwanda's Belgian colonizers but had been kept maily in check since 1972 by the dictator Juvenal Habyarimana, whose suddn death helped make the genocide possible
192
First and Second Congo Wars
● Between 1996 and 2003
● Sparked by the crumbling of Joseph Mobutu's repressive reigme in Zaire/Congo, sucked nine Cntral African nations into combat and killed more than five million, if counts deaths by famine and disease and the casualties caused by the war's long and violent aftermath
193
Sudan's persecution of Darfur minority
● Since 2003, Sdan's persecution of the non-Arab Darfur minority in its western provinces has killed more than half a million people nad created almsot htree million refugees
194
End of First Intifada
● In 1993, Yasser Arafat of the PLO signed peace accords with Israel's Yitzhak Rabin
● Creating a Palestinian National Authority as a first step toward a two-state solution
195
Hamas
● Uses violence deliberately to disrupt the peace process
| ● Palestiian terrorists
196
War on terror
● Goerge W. Bush extend his war on terror not just against Afghnistan whose Taliban government, made up of rigid Islamic fundamentalists, had provided al-Qaeda with safe haven, but also agasint Iraq, which in fact had not been at all involved in the assault
● American war against Afghanistan began in 2001 and is scheduled for completion in 2014
● Osama bin Laden was killed in 2011
● The war in Iraq began in 2003 and immediately deposed Saddam Hussein who was captured and killed in 2006, but it plunghed hte country into political anarchy and US forcs were not able to withdraw until 2011
197
Arab Sping
● Began in December 2010
● Politically transformed hte region by deposing an umber of longtime authoritarian regimes, starting with the Tunisian monarchy and continuing with the strongman gvoernemtn of Hosni Mubarak in Egypt and the dictatorship of Muammar Gaddafi in Libya
198
Civil war in Syria
● Between dictator Bashar al-Assad and various rebel forces
| ● Began in 2011 as part of the Arab Spring trend
199
~Who ran Germany after WWII?
● Germany and Austria were dividd into occupation zones, with the Soviets in charge of the east
● The capitals, Berlin and Vienna, were similarly divided, although this was complicated by the fact that Berlin lay within the Soviet zone
200
~When did occupation of Austria and Germany end?
● Austria's occupation ended in 1955
| ● Germany remained divided until 1989
201
~How was Korean peninsula divided?
● Pro-communist northern zone
| ● Pro-Western southern one
202
~How did the Cold War divide the world into hostile camps?
● From 1945 to 1991, Eastern Europe and communist countries form alliance with USSR while western democratic nations were led by the US
● The two superpowers that arose after WWII
203
~Why didn't Yugoslavia stay communist?
● Yugoslavia became communist as well, but its stubbornly indpendent leaer, Josip Broz Tito, broke with the Soviets in 1948
204
~What did Kennan predict?
● USSR would expand as far as it could, as long as it did not have to fight and could therefore be halted not by combat, but by firm and vigilant support for countries targeted by the Soviets
205
~How did the US choose its Third World allies?
● Based principlally on how anti-communist htye were, not how democratic
● Supported many dictatorial and authoritarian regimes
206
~Other than USSR and US, what other countries develop nuclear arsenals?
● With US assistance, Britain and France built small nuclear arsenals during the 1960s
● China developed its own in 1964, without help from the increasingly hostil Soviets
● Israel secretly gained nuclear weapons during the Cold War
● South Africa briefly had them but voluntarily decommissioned them
207
~How was Soviet distressed at grwoing unrest in Eastern Europe?
● 1980 emergence of the dissident trade union Solidairy in Poland
● Made hte USSR more edgy in general
208
~What swung NATO foreign policy to the right?
● Election of leaders like Margaret Thatcher in Britian (1979) and Ronald Reagan in the US (1980)
209
~What status was the Cold War in between 1979 and 1985?
● Arms race accelerated
● Third World brushfire wars worsened
● Both superpowers expressed mutual ocntempt by boycotting each other's Olympic Games
- Moscow in 1980 and Los Angeles in 1984
210
~What did Gorbachev do during his regime?
● In 1987, he resumed arms talks with his US counterparts
| ● Allowed Solidarity and other anti-Soviet movements to aris in Eastern Europe (Sinatra Doctrine)
211
~What is hte Sinatra Doctrine
● Letting East EUropeans do things their way
● Poland held free elections for the first time in 1989 and gave vicotry to non-communist candidates backed by Solidarity
212
~What (dis)advantages do Third World countries have by taking sides in the Cold War?
● Befriending a superpower could attract technologicl and economic assistance
● Could also involve a new country in a Cold War proxy conflict
● Also mean superpower invervention in a country's policymaking, or the propping-up of an authoritarin or unpopular leader by a superpower ally
213
~Why did Postwar Europe found itself in a paradoxical situation?
● On onehand, WWII and global decolonization ended its global dominance, and the superpowers divdied it into a Cold War battleground
● On the other hand, once it repaired its wartime damage, it came to enjoy unprecedneted levesl of prosperity and modernization, even int he eat and especially in the west
214
~Why was Eastern European production characterized by poor quality?
● Priority given tot he Cold War arms race
| ● Consumer goods were constantly in short supply
215
~Why was decolonization demoralizing for Euorpe?
● When coutnries fought unsuccessful wars in an attempt to keep their colonies
- France in Indochina (1945-1954) and Algeria (1954-1962)
216
~Where did authoritarin rule persist in Europe?
● Protugal, Greece, and Spain (where Francisco Franco, the dictatorial victor ot he Spanish Civil War, continued to rule) until mid-1970s
217
~What were the causes for global economic crisis of hte 1970s?
● US abandonment of hte gold standard in 1971
| ● OPEC oil embargo of 1973
218
~What was the result of using free-market policies?
```
● Caused recovery in terms of overall wealth
● Socials tress in the form of strikes nad layoffs, and its main legacy appears to hae been the long-term redistribution of wealth upward form the middle class to the very rich
```
219
~What undermined stability int he Soviet bloc?
```
● Brezhnev stagnation
● Rising cost of hte arms race
● Invasion of Afghnistan
● General inefficiency of the system that led to nuclear meltdown at Chernobyl in 1986
● Increasingly active dissidnt movement
```
220
~What did Gorbachev do?
```
● Twin reform effort
● Ended the war in Afghanistan
● netered into arms talks with the US
● Allowed freedom movemnets, especially Poland's Solidarity to reemerge in Eastern Europe
● Permitted hte fall of the Berlin Wall
```
221
~What did Gorbachev find himself isolate between by 1990 and 1991?
● Democratizers, who thought he was not changing enough
| ● Communist hard-liners wo wre deeply angry about the liited chagnes he had already mdad
222
~What happened in 1991 that ended the USSR?
● Gorbachev was almost overthrown by a failed coup attempt in the summer of 1991
● He agreed to hte disbandment of hte USSR that December, ending a long and tumultuous chapter in history
223
~What were developments dominated by in the Middle East?
● Strategic and economic immportance as the world's key source of oil
● Role of Islamic fundamentalism
● Authoritarian rule and human rights abuses were prevalent, even in regimes claiming to be democratic
224
~Why did indepence and oil-based welath made the states of the Middle East more asertive in the 1950s and 1960s?
● Their geopolitical importance during the Cold War allowed them to bid for superpower patronage
● Example of the new Arab nationalism appeared in Egypt, where military officers overthrew hte pro-British king in 1952, bringing Colonel Gamal Nasser to pwer in 1954
225
~What was hte result of the establishemnt of Palestine?
● When Palestin was created, Palestinian Arabs refused to comply and with support form surrounding Arab states, alunched a 1948 war to drive the Israelis away
● This attempt failed and scattered many Palestinians to Jordan, Lebanon and elsewehere as long-term refugees
226
~When and from whom did hte Islamic state of North Africa become free?
● During the 1950s
● Egypt and Sudan from Britain
● Libya from Italy
● Morocco and Tunisia from France
227
~What advantages do North African states have over sub-Saharan ones when it came to decolonization?
● Existed as meaningly political units before, making the transition to nation-state easier
● More homogeneous in terms of religion, ethnicity, and lanuage
● Colonizing powers also left behind useful industrial, economic and infrastructural assets
228
~Who were the major figures in the anti-apartheid movement?
● Nelson mandela
● Mandela's spouse Winnie
● Anglican bishop Desmond Tutu
229
How did apartheid end?
● During the 1980s, internal unrest, combined wiht worldwide revulsion and hte threat of economic sanctions and divestment, convinced hte white governemnt that apartheid could not be maintained
● Nelson Mandela was released in 1990 and the government prepared for free elections that resulted in ANC victory in 1994 and Mandela's election as president
230
What were the key problems hampering modernization effort sin much of Africa?
● Dictatorship and corruption
● lack of cutlural and ethnolinguistic unity
● Ethinic violence and constant armed conflict
● Health-related crises
231
What broke LDP's near-monopoly on power
● Economic downturn after hte arly 1990s and a growing spirit of nonconformity among Japnaes youth broke the monopoly on power
● Even in a weakened state, Japan remained economically important in the post-Cold War era
232
When did other British colonies go free in Southeast Asia?
● Burma in 1948
● Malaysia in 1957
● Singapore in 1965
233
How did the US back south Vietnam throughout the 1960s?
● Beliving in domino-principle logic of the Cold War
● Stepped up its military support for South Vietnam
● Paying insufficient attention to the unpopularity of the regime and of the war effort in general
234
What did Latin American nations turn to?
● Despite temporary progress toward economic modernization and dmocratization int he late 1940s and early 1950s, many Latin American nations reverted to exploitative economies and dictatorial government from the alte 1950s through the aerly 1980s
● By the mid-1970s, only a handful of countries in the region could be considered democratic
235
What were typical of Latin American governance?
● Military governements and right-wing dictatorships predominated
● Because of their anti-communism, many of these regimes were Cold War allies of the US, despite their human-rights abuses and their tendncy to gear their economies for thebenefit of the elite instead of tending tot he needs of the population at large
● Indigenous natives--Indians, Mayans, amazon tribes--were often badly treated
236
What were trends that encouraged global integration?
● Expansion and growing importance of international organizations and regional associations
● UN, WTO, EU
237
When were the strenghs and effectiveness of international organizations not evident?
● The UN has often shown impotence and indecision int he face of conflicts and humanitarian crises
● Over 150 nations have signed the ICC charter but not all have ratified it and major nations like Russia, China, Israel and hte US have chosen not to fully recognize its authority
238
What led to global fragmentation?
● The suddne rush of East European nations to join NATO and EU deeply angered a Russia tha twas already smarting form the loss of its superpower status
● Ethnic tensions in Europea have heightened, even in the most democratic states
● Ant-immigrant sentiment has been directed at Turkish guest wokrers and other Musli communities especially those attempting to retain traditions like Sharia law or hte veiling of women
● Anti-Roma (gypsy) prejudice remains widespread throughout Eastern Europe
239
What happened during the Yugoslav wars?
● Serbian forces and Bosnian Serb paramilitaries committed mass rape, massacred civilians (Srebrenica), besieged and shelled the Bosnian capital of Sarajevo for over three years, and carrie dout forced deportation called ethnic cleasings
● At least 100,000 were killed and two million more made refugees, before UN and NATO overcame their indecisive caution and intervned to ipose the Dayton Accords in late 1995
240
How did the second round of fihgint in Yugoslav wars happen?
● Serbia attempted to remove ethnic Albanians from the province of Kosovo, requiring a NATO bombardment of Serbia to end the hostilities
241
What was Asia's stability politically and economically?
● The economic dynamism and high-tech innovation found in places like China, Singapore and parts of India (such as Bangalore, the Silicon Valley of South Asai) contrasts with the geopolitical perils poased by ongoing Indo-Pakistani border skirmishes, the perpetual instability of Afghanistan, the possibility of clashes between Communist China and Taiwan or Japan and the increasingly erratic bellicosity of a nuclear-armed North Korea
242
What problems remained in Africa?
● Religious and ethnic differneces
● Competitaion over resources like oil, gold and diamonds
● Civil war, mass killings and the recruitment of child soldiers
243
What caused the Second Intifada?
● Extremists on both sides sabotaged negotiations in 2000-2001
● Arafat died in 2004, and Rabin was assassinated by an Israeli opponent of hte peace process
244
How did the Arab-Israeli conflict end up?
● The Palestinian's Fatah leadership, ahve struggled with Palestinian terrorists like Hamas
● Israeli policymakers who have used Palestinian terror as the pretext to quarantine ordinary Palestinians in apartheid-like conditions (further inflaming Palestinian opinion against Israel)
● Israeli religous fundamentalists
● They all determined to uild illegal settlements on Palestinian land which they regard as the Jews' biblical inheritance
