State Building, Expansion, and Conflict, 1450-1750 Flashcards
Nation-states
● Political units with relatively fixd borders
● A sense of national unity
● Populations were large
● Homogeneous in terms of language and ethnicity
Political and administrative centralization
● Became more sophisticated
● led to a higher degree of state organization and efficiency
● Features of modern government (bureaucracies, admiralties, general staffs, treasures, and state banks) were more commonplace
● Rulers devised more reliable and more efficient means to collect taxes and conscript soldiers
● Allowed European monarchs to abandon medieval feudalism
State-building techniques
● Included impressive displays of arhitecture and art
● Regimes contineud to rely on religious concepts to legitimate their authority
- Putting ethnic nad religious groups firmly under their control but kept them economically productive
Bureaucratic elites
● Staff administrations htat were growing larger and more modern
Caravel
● Nimble, three-masted ship used extensively by Portuguese
● Able to carry lots of weight
- Put cannons on the ships
Iberian peninsula
● Portugal and Spain
Prince Henry the Navigator
● Encouraged Portugal’s exploring efforts
● Created a school to train navigaotrs and collect knowledge
Bartholomeu Diaz
● Reached the southern tip of Africa in 1488
● The rulers of Portugal named the Cape of Good Hope
- Recognizing this as an important step on the way to India
Vasco da Gama
● FIrst European to reach India by sea
Christopher Columbus
● Proposed to sail west to reach the Far East
● Reached the Caribbean in October 1492
Lines of demarcation
● Spain and Portugal agreed to in 1493-1494
● The pope gave jurisdiction over most of SouthAmerica and all of North America to the Spanish while the Portuguese recieved Brazail and Africa in 1529
Ferdinand Magellan
● A Portuguese mariner sailing on behalf of Spain
● Leader of the first-ever circumnavigation of the globe
Trading-post empire
● Established by Portuguese
● Many outposts along the trading route
Maritime empires
● Overseas colonies fully under their control
● Established in the New World
- Portugal moved into Brazil
- Spain built up power in the Caribbean, using islands such as Cuba, Puerto Rico and Hispaniola
Conquistadors
● Generals who brought huge parts of North and South America under Spanish control
Juan Ponce de Leon
● Florida fell to him in 1513
Hernan Cortes
● From 1519 to 1521, he waged an effective and brutal camaign against the Aztecs, and the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan became the headquarters for all of New Spain
● Mesoamerica nad most of what is now the US Southwest fell to the Spanish
Francisco Pizarro
● Destroyed the mightly Incan empire
Mining
● Especially for silver near Mexico City and at Potosi
Plantation monoculture
● With sugarcane the most prized and most labor-intensive cash crop
Viceroyalty
● New Spain was placed under government control in 1535
● “In place of the king”
House of Trade
● All colonial economic activity was run by the House of Trade in Seville
Coerced labor
● A direct economic consequence of Spanish and Portuguese colonization in the New World
● Encomienda, mit’a system and slaves
Encomienda system
● Spanish attempted to enslave American natives
● Worked badly and was judged to oinhumane by Catholic clergy
● Abolished in the 1540s
Mit’a system
● Form of coerced labor used previously by the Incas
● Took by Spanish in the Andes
Atlantic slave trade
● New WOrld rely increasingly on the importation of slaves from Africa
● Rapid rise of the trade well into the 1800s
Northeast Passage
● Along Russia’s northern coast
Northwest Passage
● Through Canada’s northern waters
● Might provide an alternatie route to Asia
Jacques Cartier
● Started French coonial presence in North America
● He charted the St. Lawrence River
Samuel Champlain
● Founded the first cities in Canada, Quebec in 1608
Company of New France
● Created by the French colonical presence in North America
● Include Quebec and later Louisiana territory that include Great Lakes and Mississippi basin
Fur trade
● Highest priority in French colonies
● Many French colonists were excellent hunters, trappers, and woodesmen (voyageurs)
Sea beggars
● Dutch mariners
● Sought to disrupt Spanish trade anad to attack Spanish-contrlled ports worldwide
- They did the same to the Portuguese
Dutch East India Company
● Administered Dutch operations in Indonesia
● A joint-stock enterprise founded in 1602
Dutch West India Company
● Established in 1621
● Oversee the Netherlands’ Caribbean colonies
● Controlled the New York region, which they hired Henry hudson to explore in 1609
● Dutch settlers purchased hte island of Manhattan in 1624 and named it New Amsterdam
- It grew into a thriving commercial center under the leadership of Peter Stuyvesant
- Later became New York under the English
John Cabot
● Attempted to find a Northwest Passage to Asia through Canada’s Arctic waters
Sea dogs
● English pirates
● Gained much knowledge about global navigation from their conflicts with the Spanish and Portuguese
Francis Drake
● First Englishman to sail around the world, during a voyage whose main purpose was to raid Spanish ships and ports
Jamestown, Virginia
● First successful settlement
● Founded in 1607 and led by John Smith
Mayflower Pilgrims
● Landed at Plymouth Rock in 1620 and Puritans also founded hte Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1628
William Penn
● Quaker
● Founded Pennsylvannia, home to New World’s largest city, Philadlphia
Hudson’s Bay Company
● Incorporated in 1670
● Began to intrude into Canada and other French colonies for the purpose fo sugarcane, timber, corn, potatoes, and tobacca
Indentured servitude
● Many coloniests paid for their passage throught this
● In exchange, they have to work under a master for a number of years
British East India Company
● Manage economic and later military relations with South and Southeast Asia
● The English gained a presence in northwestern Indian by 1608 and would eventually take over more of hte subcontinent
● They seized hte key port of Melaka from the Dutch in 1795
Land empire
● Empire on land
● Ex) Russia established one in Siberia during the 1500s and 1600s
- Extended to reach North America
Bering Expedition
● A Scientific venture organized by the Russian government
● Surveyed hte waters separating Siberia from North America
● Russian missionaries and hunters then moved into the Aleutian Islands and Alaska
Russian-American Company
● The Russians established a colony in Alaska in the late 1700s
● Moved down the Pacific coast, uilding fortresses as far south as northern California
● The fur trade stimulated Russian settlement
● They sold all their American possessions, including Alaska, to the US in 1867
Yasak
● Coerced-labor system that Native Siberians were subjected to
● Required them to pay tribute and hunt fur bearing animals for hte Russians
Absolutism
● The monarch was theoretically all-powerful, with no institutions or legal restrictions limiting his or her authority
● Typically justified by the doctrine of divine right
Diving right to rule
● The monarch reigns by the will of God
● Justifies absolutism
Louis XIV
● Absolute monarch of France
● the Sun King ruled from 1661 to 1715
● Centralized his bureaucracy and broke hte power of stubborn aristocrats by shifting administrative power from traditionally powerful families (nobility fo the sword) to civil servants that he himself ennobled (nobility of the robe)
● TUrned Paris and built Versailles–impressive centers of power
● Built the largest army and navy
● Persecuted Protestants
Peter the Great
● Westernized RUssia in the late 1600s and early 1700s
● FOrced his nobles to serve the state according to a strict Table of Ranks
● Serfdom remianed in place much longer
Frederick the Great
● Prussia
● An exceptionally skilled general who made his kingdom vastly more efficient during the mid-1700s but also more autocratic
● Censorship and restrictions on social mobility
Parliamentarism
● The ruler governed in conjunction with some kind of lawmaking body appointed by the aristocracy, elected by some or all of the people, or some combination of both
● The Dutch
● City-state of Venice
● England
Stadholder
● Executive official in Netherlands
● Shared power with States General
States General
● A large council in Netherlands
The English Civil War
● 1640-1649
● Led to the execution of the king by Parliamentary forces
● Led to a temporary assumption of power by Oliver Cromwell
● Showed the balance of power between monarch and parliament shifted in favor of Parliament
Glorious Reolution of 1688
● Parliment invited hte Dutch leader William of Orange to become hteir king, but with conditions
- Agree to the English Bill of Rights
English Bill of Rights
● Curtailed the powers of hte moarch and made Parliament hte dominant partner in the English political system
Ottoman Empire
● Centred in present-day Turkey
● Highly centralized, technologically advanced, and militarily powerful
Safavid Empire
● Centred in Persia
● Highly centralized, technologically advanced, and militarily powerful
● Safavid shahs converted the majority of Perisans to Shiite Islam
● Economically vibrnat (competed with Ottomans for influence over Silk ROad and Indian OCena trade)
Gunpowder empires
● Mughal India, Safavid Persia and Ottoman Empire
● Their mastery of new weaponry and thier effective use of it
Conquest of Constantinople
● Ottoman Turks conquered the Constantinople in 1453 led by Suleiman the Magnificent
● It carried the Ottomans deep into southeastern Europe and across North Africa
Selim I
● A sultan in Ottoman Empire who claimed religious authority as well as political power, equating the Ottomans’ right to rule with that of the Arab caliphates
Circle of Justice
● Ideology adopted by Ottoam Empire
Vizier
● Governors/bureaucrats of Ottoman Empire
Pashas/beys
● Provincial governors of Ottoman Empire
Devshirme system
● Recruiting civil servants and janissaries
● Enslave sons from Christian families and place them in positions of privileged servituge
Janissaries
● Musketeer infantry in Ottoman Empire
Millet system
● Sort non-Muslims into religious categories and administered them according to that status
● Dhimmi paid jizya
Dhimmi
● Non-Muslims
● Including Jews and CHristians of severla denominations
Jizya
● Unbeliever’s tax
● Tax paied by non-Muslims
Suleiman the Magnificent
● 1520-1566
● His talents as a lawmaker and domestic ruler matched his abilites as a general
● Last truly gifted Ottoman sultan
Siege of Vienna
● Turks launched thier last major offensive against hte European mainland
● They drove deep into Austrian territoy and it was feared thatthe siege would lead to a general breakthrough and a full-sclae invastion of Europe
● Vienna was saved by a last minute Catholic counteroffensive
● Austrians pushed the Ottomans far back to the east
Ismail I
● In 1501,, rose to power and took the ancient title of shah at hte age of 15
● He proclained the Safavid Empire
Isfahan
● Safavid Persia’s chief commercial center
● A great hub for hte production and sale of silk, ceramics, and Persia rugs
Songhai
● The Muslim kingdom that took the place of Mali in the mid-1400s in West Africa
● Asseted control over the city of Timbukru and the region’s key trade routes
● Prospered until civil war and invastion by Moroccan forces destroyed it in the 1590s
Askia Mohammed
● Somghai’s most famous ruler
● Came to the throne by overthrowing the previous monarch
● A skilled general who governed from 1493-1528, he expanded Sonhai’s boundaries, centralized his power by creating a complex bureaucracy, and sponsored art, scholarship, and the building of many mosques
● He expanded trade, and Songhai’s growing merchant class generated wealth by exchanging salt for gold
Griot
● Storytellers in AFrica
Kongo
● A Bantu state that took shape around 1400 between the Atlantic coast and the western edge of what is now the modern state of Congo
● Portuguese took hostages and compelled it to enter a long and coercive partnership
● Kongo’s monarchs converted to Catholicism, took European names, and gave Portugal favorable trade terms and hte right to use thier ports
● It expelled the Portuguese with help from the Dutch between the 1620s and 1670s
Ashanti/Asante kingdom
● Founded by Osei Tutu in 1680
● Became immensely powerful because its leaders sold gold and slaves to Europeans in exchange for muskets and gunpowder
Boers/Afrikaners
● Dutch who began to settle the region after mid-1600s when they expelled the Portuguese in South Africa
● They enslaved the African herding tribes nearest them, including the peaceful Xhosa, and hten encountered a stronger and more warlike group, the Zulu
Omani Arabs
● They rose up against Portuguese rule in the 1650s in East Africa
● After expelling the Portuguese from their home port of Muscat, the Omanis proceeded down the East African coast starting in the 1690s and continueing into the early 1700s, pushing the portuguese out of a number of cities, including Zanzibar and Mombasa
Influx of silver
● Portuguese and Spansh paid for trade goods triggered inflation and then economic breakdown
Little Ice Age
● A general cooling
● Possibly cuased agricultural yields to shrink in Ming China
Li Zicheng’s peasant revult
● In the 1630s and early 1640s, it toppled the Ming dynasty, whose last emperor committed suicide
● This opened the door for an external conquest of northern China by the Manchus
Manchus
● An ethnicallyr elated but distinct people living to China’s northeast
Qing
● Manchus established a new dynasty that lasted from 1644 to 1912
● Skilled warlords, the early Qing rulers spent the last half of the 1600s consolidating their rule over southern China and expanding it to the island of Formosa (Taiwan)
● They gained control over Mongolia, Tibet, and much of Central Asia and forced many neighboring areas into thier tributary system
● Manchus enforced an ethcnically based system of social stratification
Kangxi
● 1662-1722
● Widely considered one of China’s greatest rulers: an adept general, a just lawgiver, and a sponsor of culture of learning
● Claiming to have the mandate of heaven, and also patronizing Confucianism, with its emphasis on respect for authority
● He appreciated hte importance of the West’s growing technological aptitude
Shoguns
● Military rulters who wielded power on behalf of the symbolically important but politically impotent emperor
● Japan had been ruled since the end of the 1100s by shoguns
Reunification of Japan
● Lasted from 1560 to 1615
● Invovled the military and diplomatic efforts of three warlords
- The first two harnessed the power of gunpowder weapons and relied on an increasingly harsh system of social stratification to defeat their rivals and restore civic order
Tokugawa Ieyasu
● A brilliant, ruthless commander who declared himself shogun in 1603 and brought the entire country under his control by 1615
● The shogunate he founded lasted until 1868, and the Tokugawa era is often referred to as the great peace
Tokugawa Shogunate
● Ieyasu moved Japan's capital to the city of Edo (Tokyo) but the emperor remained a figurehead as before ● Japan's caste system -- samurai, peasants, artisans, and merchants with eta "untouchables" at the bottom -- was still ustified by Confucian ideology, but it became more rigid than before, and until after the mid-1700s, it was virtually impossible to mov from one class to another ● The reigme maintianed a strict monopoly on gunpowder technology
Salaried samurai
● Served the Tokugawa reigme as bureaucrats and civil servants as their warrior function was no longer needed
Isolationism
● A trned that had begun even in the late 1500s
● Japan’s authorities feared hte influence of foreign ideas and European Christianity, and also the importation of gunpowder weapons
● Christianity was officially discouraged
National seclusion policy
● Instituted in the 1630s
● Allowed foreign traders access to only one city, the port of Nagasaki
Babur the Tiger
● In 1520, the Mongol warlord invaded the Delhi Sultanate from the north and shattered it at hte battle of Panipat in 1526
- This led to the establishment of the Mughal Empire
Mughal Empire
● Conquered the rest of India nad ruled there for hte next several centuries
● One of the gunpowder empires
● Centralized India and turned hte previously autonomous landowning zamindar class into regional governors and bureaurcrats
● Economy thrived due to India’s cotton trade
Akbar the Great
● 1556-1605
● Used gunpowder weaonry to complete hte conquest of India
● Reform taxes and the law code
● Religious tolerance
- Abolished the jizya tax piad by non-Muslims and encouraged friendly relations among Muslims, Buddhists, Hindus, and Sikhs
- Attempted to outlaw sati
Shah Jahan
● Akbar’s grandson
● Left behind a great architectural legacy that includes the beloved Taj Mahal
Aurangzeb
● 1658-1707
● A militant Muslim who abandoned the early Mughals’ policy of religious flexibility
- Reimposed the jizya tax and began to force non-Muslisms to live under Sharia law and Muslim dietary restrictions
● His intolerance stirred up civil strife and violence and also affected the economy adversely
● He militarized India’s Sikhs by putting their leader, or guru, to death in 1675, and he provoke hte secession of the Maratha Empire
Maratha Empire
● A Hindu state founded by the warrior-soverign Shivaji in west-central India
Seven Years’ War
● The English defeated key Indian allies of the French, after which they turned to the domination of India itself
● They easily triumphed over Mughal rulers, though they kept many Mughal states in place as puppets
Military revolution
● The process by which nations fully incorporated gunpowder weaponry into their way of war, roughly between 1500 and 1700
● Did not mean simply adopting cannon and musket but completely readjusting one’s military methods
● Replacing medieval castles with gunpowder fortresses and learning how to safely install cannon on ships
● Entailed the development of bureaucracies capable of conscripting larger numerbs of sodiers, training them, and supplying them with uniforms, gear and food
Catholic-Protestant religious wars
● Culminated in the Thirty Years’ War from 1618-1648
● These wars weakened Spain and Austria but strengthened France
Anglo-French rivalry
● France now engaged in an Anglo-French rivalry that lasted from the late 1600s to the early 1800s
● Global ramifications were hte Seven Years’ War (1756-1763)
Ottoman-European conflict
● Played out in southeastern Europe and in the Mediterrannea
● Turks conquered Constantinople and hte campaigns of Suleiman hte Great
● After Ottoman’s fail in 1683 siege of Vienna, Europeans were winning
Ottomon-Safavid rivalry
● In the Indian Ocena basin
● Over trade and religious differences (Sunni vs Shiite)
Omani-European rivalry
● For influence over the East African coast
Priracy in the Caribbean
● Europeans competing with other over trade routes
What were the two major developments of the period?
● Explorations of the rest of the world
● Incorporation of gunpowder weaponry into warfare
What were some examples of handling ethnic and religious groups?
● Ottoman empire’s treatment of non-Muslim’s subjects
● Exercise of Manchu authority over ethnic Chinese during the Qing dynasty
● Spanish treatment of native populations in their New World colonies
What were some examples of bureaucratic elites?
● Civil servants recruited by the Ottoman devshirme system
● The Chinese mandarins who arose thanks to the Confucian examination system
● Various nobles who adapted to civil service in several states
- The Table of Rnaks in Russia
- Salaried samurai in Japan
- European nobility (espeically nobles of hte robe in France)
What were the major forms of government?
● Most monarchies remained traiditonally autocratic or absolutist
● Some nations experimented with forms of government htat wre more representative, including parliamentary monarchy
What gave Europeans appetites for the wealth of eastern locales?
● Mediterranean trade
● Greater awareness of the Middle East gained during the Crusades
● Tales told by travelers like Marco Polo
What were the motivations for explorations?
●. Renaissance
- Desire to know about the world–curiosity
● Technology
● Christianity
- Wnated to convert Christianity (both Protestants and Catholics)
● Economic motives
- Alternate routes to get goods from Asia (Ottoman Empire cut off the route)
What technologies helped Europeans to explore?
● Navigational and maritime technologies such as the astrolabe, the compass and hte sternpost rudder
● Sailing ships capable of long-range oceanice voyaging with deep keels for stability and advanced rigging systems that permitted hsips to sail hwere they needed to despite the wind
- Caravel, galleon
Why did Columbus believe he could sail to Asia from the west?
● Lay not in the idea that the world was round
● But in his erroneous belief that hte globe was small enough that an expedition would be able to sail from Spain to Asia before running out of food or water, or without encountering some other landmass in the way
Where did the name “Indians” for Natives come from?
● Columbus reached the islands of the Caribbean in October 1492
● He was convinced htat he had found the Indies
What East African cities did Portuguese conquer in addition to their West African outposts?
● Mombasa and Zanzibar
● The port of Muscat in 1507 in the Arab state of Oman
● Seized the Indian port of Goa in 1510
● THe thriving commercial center of Melaka in 1511
● Islands of Sri Lanka
What were the reasons for Spanish’s victory in conquering Natives in the Americas?
● Military advantages that horses and gunpowder weapons gave them
● Adept at divide-and-conquer tactics
- They stirred up rivalries among native tribes and allied with some against others
● Diseases such as smallpox and measles killed indigenous Americans in massive numbers
● Aztecs mistook Cortes as their returning god
How did French challenge the Spanish in the New World?
● They seized Caribbean islands such as Martinique and Saint Domingue (today Haiti)
Why did France lose Canada and India?
● England won the French and Indian Wars (an offshoot of the Seven Years’ War)
● England also defeated the mughal states allied with France in India
Why did sea beggars seize Spanish-controlled ports?
● They were fighting the war of independnence against Spain
What did the sea beggars do?
● They seized the port of Melaka, the island of Sri Lanka, must of West Africa and a number of Caribbean islands
● Invaded Indonesia, where they maintained a colonical presence for centureies, running pepper and spice plantation
How is parliamentarism practiced in England?
● Monarchs had been compelled to share power with Parliament since hte 1200s
● Even the strong-willed ones like Henry VIII and Elizabeth I
What advantages were enoyed by nations with parliamentary systems?
● Both the Dutch and the English dveloped strong commercial economies, powerful navies, urbanized societies, and intellectual and cultural outlooks that were relatively open and free form religious persecution
● Although povety and inequality existed in parliamentary systmes, social mobility tended to be greater than in absolutist states
Describe Ottoman Empire’s administration
● Sultans claim religious authority and political power
● Sultans ruled with the help of an elaborate bureaucracy, headed by the grand vizier and staffed by lesser viziers and pashas and beys
● Devshirme system, millet system
How did Safavids Empire fall in the early 1700s?
● A series of famines and plagues in the late 1600s
● THese disasters cause population loss and tax shortfalls and they also left Persia open to external attacks by Uzbeks from Central Asia and Cossacks from Russia
How did the arrival of the Portuguese and other Europeans profoundly shape the development of West Africa?
● They expanded Atlantic slave trade with advanced gunpowder
● Several states attained or maintained power by cooperating with the outsiders at the expense of their neighbors
What did Kongo gain from cooperating with Portuguese?
● Kongo acuired gunpowder weapons from the Portuguese and enlarged its army
● With that army, it defeated its fellow African and captured thousands of them as prisoners of war–who were promptly sold to the Portuguese as slaves
● During most of hte 1500s, Kongo expanded and centralized, but internal disputes then weakend it in the late 1500s and early 1600s
What was Ming experiencing in the beginning of 1400s?
● Politically dynamic and militarily active
● Chinese also had an opportunity to engage in their own campaign of global exploration because of Zheng He
What was Ming experiencing in the late 1500s and early 1600s?
● Grew militarily softer and politically stagannt
● Rapid decline
- Government decentralized and unraveled
- Influx of silver
- Agricultural yields shrank
- Population grew – famines recurred regularly
What was Ming China’s relationship with Europeans?
● Opened up China to the European traders and Christian missionaries who began arriving in the 1500s
- First the Portuguese who recieved hte port of Macau as a gift for driving away local pirates
- Then the Spanish and Dutch
What was Qing China’s relationship with Europeans?
● Starting in the 1690s, the Qing traded with European nations, but regulated commerce tightly and limited foreign contacts as much as possible
● Christianity was banned in 1724, and by the middle of hte 1700s, foreign trade was funneled through a handful of ports and border cities, the most important of which was Canton, on the Pacific coast
● Qing exported a high volumed of tea, silk, and porcelain but it allowed few imports
How were the Qing fall behind in the late 1700s?
● Qing rulers grew more complacent
● China began slipping backward in terms of scientific and technological advancement – leaving the country increasingly open to foreign domination int he 1800s
What was Japan experiencing during the 1300s and 1400s?
● A feudal system decentralized the regime
● Civil war, banditry, and economic breakdown becmae the norm during the late 1400s and 1500s
● This disunity left Japan open to European commercial and religious influence when the Portuguese arrived in the 1540s, fllowed by Spanish and Dutch traders and Missionaries from several countries
● The Europeans introduced gunpowder weaponry into Japan
What was Japan experiencing during the Tokugawa Shogunate?
● Economy fourished
● population grew rapidly
● Rice production more than doubled
● Highly urbanized
● Government built an elaborate network of roads and canals
● Great producers of lacquerware, pottery, and steel
- The merchant class gained a great deal of economic and social clout in the 1600s and 1700s despite the very low status they occupied in the Japanese caste system
Why did the Mughal state decline during the 1700s?
● Religious struggles continued as many provinces joined the Sikh and Maratha states in declaring independence
● European interference in India’s affairs also increased
- The English built textile factories at Fort Wiliam near Calcutta in the northeast and Madras; the western gateway port of Bombay was ceded to the British East India Company in 1661
- The Dutch East India Company established bases in Ceylon
- French created a great garrison and trading center at Pondicherry on the east coast
What was the Americas experiences in 1450-1750?
● Most fell under European colonial control in the 1500s
● Once-mighty states like the Aztec and Incan empires quickly collapsed due to a combination of European-borned diseases and European military and technological advatnages
● Various colonial regimes and joint-stock companies came to exert power over both continents
