Social Structures, 1750-1900

Question 1

~Class diversification

Answer 1

● Hallmark social developmetns
● Increasing working class and middle class
● Decreasing nobles and farmers/peasants

Question 2

~Traditional aristocracies

Answer 2

● Their status based on land and hereditary noble status
● Saw their political power and social clout weaken, if not fade altogether
- Noble privileges were formally abolished in revolutionary France

Question 3

~Industrial working class/proletariat

Answer 3

● Newer workign class included not just factory workers, miners, but most wage laborers of any sort, skilled or unskilled, in urban and industrial settings
● Shouldered most of the burden of early industrialization, without enjoying many of its benefits until several decades into the process
● Endured the harsh living and working conditions, and the low wages
● Struggled for greater political representation, better wroking conditions, and the right to form unions

Question 4

~Middle class/bourgeoisie

Answer 4

● Rising prosperity and prominence
● Expanded and greatly diversified, including landowners, well-off farmers, master artisans and craftsmen, professionals such as doctors and lawyers
● Bankers, merchants, and factory owners increasingly controlled the means of generating wealth
● Industriousness, commitment to education an dliteracy, generally liberal outlook, favored expansion of political participation, civil rights and economic opportunity

Question 5

~Rural population

Answer 5

● New social divisions in the countryside: more land came to be owned by well-off farmers and homesteaders who were essentially middle class
- Under them were poor agricultural laborers, renters, and sharecroppers who formed a rural working class of sorts
● Proportion of peasants and farmers among the lower classes shrank

Question 6

~Social classes in Latin America

Answer 6

● Spanish and Portuguese colonial hierarchies were overthrown and new consitutions written
● Inequality persisted
● Indians, blacks, and those of mixed race still suffered official prejudice, and the economic pag between a small, wealthy landowning and business elite and the lower-class masses grew wider during the 1800s

Question 7

~Millets

Answer 7

● Administrative units categorized by religion

Question 8

~Racially segregationist policies

Answer 8

● Many foreign imperial powers enact these to shape social dynamics in Africa Southeast Asia
● Underwent little diversification
● In some cases, imperial rule brought about a measure of social modernization (Indai, Indochina)

Question 9

~Social stratification in Qing China

Answer 9

● Remained rigid, with increasingly heavy social taxes levied on the impoverished masses
- Prime reason for the popularity of uprisings like the White Lotus (1796-1804) and the Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864)

Question 10

~Opium addiction

Answer 10

● Social crisis for China
● QIng official despairngly described as “a disease which will dry up our bones, a worm that gnaws at our hearts, and a ruin to our families and persons”

Question 11

~Social stratification in Tokugawa shogunate

Answer 11

● Preserve its samurai-dominated system, with low social mobility for the lower orders

Question 12

~Partial modernization in Japan

Answer 12

● During the late 1700s and early 1800s
● Placed hte shogun and the samurai classes in a dilemma
- Although it added to Japan’s prosperity, it undermined the power and land-based wealth of the tradtional aristocracy by encouraging urbanization and lending more influence to the merchant class

Question 13

~Merchant class in Japan

Answer 13

● Technically occupied one of the lower spots in the Japanese caste system, but was emerging as an increasingly important middle class

Question 14

~Abolition of samurai status

Answer 14

● During the 1870s
● The Meiji emperor abolished samurai status and hereditary privileges including the exclusive right to wear swords
● A major step in ending the Tokugawa regime’s rigid social hierarchy

Question 15

~Westernized middle class

Answer 15

● Feudal prejudice against trade and artisanship deid away

● Appeared and expanded in Meiji Japan

Question 16

~Commoners

Answer 16

● Commoners of all types received better, nationally funded educations and werenow eligible to serve int he military, where as during the Tokugawa years they had been forbidden to handle weapons of any kind under any circumstance

Question 17

~Free laborers

Answer 17

● Experienced oppressive conditions, until the advent of labor laws nad trade unions (1800s and early 1900s)
● Persistence of coerced and semi-coerced forms of labor in many parts of hte globe

Question 18

~Indentured servitude in Asia/coolie lablor

Answer 18

● Rose during the late 1700s and 1800s in Asia
● To pay off debts or because they were deceived into thinking htat good jobs awaited them, large numbers of Asian worker (India and China) signed labor contracts that placed them under the near-complete control of their employers

Question 19

~Serfdom

Answer 19

● Lasted into the late 1700s in parts of Central and Eastern Europe
● In most places, it was done away with by the end of the century due to Enlightenment-era reform or to the infuence of the French Revolution and Napoleon’s conquests

Question 20

~Russian serfdom

Answer 20

● Remained central to economic and social life
● Even with the number of serf uprisings growing yearly during the ealry 1800s, noble landowners were reluctant to surrender what was a near-limitless supply of cheap labor
● Russia’s defeat in teh Crimean War in the mid-1850s made it abundantly clear that serfdom was holding back economic and industrial modernization
● Alexander II presided over the emancipation of Russia’s serfs in 1861

Question 21

~East African slave trade

Answer 21

● Ran largely by Arabs and headquartered in market cities like Zanzibar
● Flourished throughout most of hte 1800s, fueled by a steadily growing demand for spices and suagra produced by plantation agriculture in East Africa
● Ended as a result of popular outrage in the WEst, military action on the part of Western governmets and missionary activity

Question 22

~David Livingstone

Answer 22

● A Scottish explore nad humanitarian who helped to stop the East African slave trade

Question 23

~Atlantic slave trade

Answer 23

● Western nations benefited more directly
● Declined during the 1800s but also lasted a regrettably long time
● Gradual demise resulted partly from practical economic considerations: more difficult and therefore more expensive to obtain slaves
● Haitain REvolution
● Growing political, religious and ethical revulsion for slavery that arose among Western populations
● Continued, illegal or not

Question 24

~Haitian Revolution (1791-1804)

Answer 24

● First successful uprising of African slaves in the modern era
● Set a monumnetal precedent for possible rebellions in the future

Question 25

~Abolition movements

Answer 25

● Especially in britian and the nrothern US

● Efforts and foreign pressure against the slave trade

Question 26

~Missionaries

Answer 26

● Euroepan and American missionaries serving in Africa oftern campaigned against slave raids and slave markets, both on the Atlantic caost and in East Africa

Question 27

~Migration of peoples

Answer 27

● Began during the 1800s and never truly ceased
● Driven by a combination of voercrowding at home and economic opportunity abroad
● Political persecution or violent unrest at home provided people with an incentive to emigrate
● Western imperialism, as colonial officials, setterls, and others seeking opportunity or adventur traveled far from home to new places
● Industrial-era modes of transport made migration more feasible

Question 28

~Migration in other parts (not Americas)

Answer 28

● Chinese merchants and laborers spreading throughout Malaysia and elsewhere (Southeast Asia and Indian Ocean basin)
● Large numbers of Indians traveling to East and South Africa because of commercial ties there
● Australia also received a number of immigrants from Asia

Question 29

~Temporary/seasonal migrations

Answer 29

● Migrants relocate for work and either return home or send wages back to their families
● Tended to involved agricultural labor and typically meant that it was men who migrated and women who assumed new burdens and leadership roles at home and in the family

Question 30

~Daiasporic communities/foreign enclaves

Answer 30

● Asiasns in Australia
● Japanese agrilcultural laborers throughout the Pacific (with a large concentration in Hawaii and the west coasts of Ameircan and Canada, as well as along South America’s Pacific coastline
● Lebanese merchants int he Americas
● Large population of Italians who settled in Argentina
● Chinese diaspora throughout Southeast Asia
● Presence of Indians in East AFrica nad South Africa, and as afr as Caribbean

Question 31

~Anti-immigration sentiment

Answer 31

● Common nboth on a popular and official level
● Arose due to straightforward ethnic or religious prejudice and the alrmist tendency to view new arrivals as potential economic competitors
● Jews and non-whites were rarely well-received in their new societies, but neither were groups like Irish when they first landed on new shores

Question 32

~Quota systems

Answer 32

● Imposed by countreis hosting large numbers of immigrants

● limiting the quantity of people they could let in per year from a given country

Question 33

~Chinese Exclusion Act

Answer 33

● Suspended Chinese immigration for ten years, starting in 1882
● Continued to renew the restriction beyond 1892, well into the 1990s
● Feverish racial fears about a rising “yellow peril” combined with concern about the availability of jobs for white Ameircans, motivated hte passage of this law

Question 34

~White Australia Policy

Answer 34

● Enshrined in a numner of official measures, including the Immigration Restrction Act o 1901
● Intended to give every possible advantage to white imigratns from Great Britain, as opposed ot potential arrivals from China, the Pacific islands, and continental Europe, all seeking jobs in Australian mines or on sugar plantations

Question 35

~Mary Woolstonecraft

Answer 35

● Egnlish author who was considered one of the founders of modern feminism
● Her 1792 treatise insisted that women, like men, possess reason and were therefore entitled to equal rights

Question 36

~Olympe de Gouges

Answer 36

● During the French Revolution, the playwright argued in her “Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Citizeness” that women should have the same rights gratned to men by the “Declaraction fo the Rights of Man and the Citizen”
● Government dismissed her proposal
● She died during the Reign of Terror

Question 37

~Suffragette movements

Answer 37

● Led by women of the middle and upper classes

● Most vocal was Britain’s, led by Emmeline Pankhurst

Question 38

~Seneca Falls Convention 1848

Answer 38

● Included major figures in the US women’s movement, Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton
● Called for the right to vote
● Based its “Declaration fo Sentiments” on the US Declaration of Independence
● Agitated for better working conditions for women, child welfare and temperance

Question 39

~Domestic sphere and working sphere

Answer 39

● Industrialization shifted the workplace away from the farm and created two spheres
● Women of the lower classes were generally compelled to enter the workplace, most frequently in textil factories–where women made up 50% of hte workforce until 1870
● Also bored the double burden of serving as the primary homemakers and caregivers for their families

Question 40

~Cult of domesticity

Answer 40

● Stressing that a woman’s place was in the home and a man’s in the workplace
● Dominated Western culture, especially among the middle nad upper classes, during the md-to late nineteenth century
● Certain occupations were open to women: child care/governesses, teaching, domestic household work/servants and maids, nursing and artisanry

Question 41

~Tanzimat reform (women)

Answer 41

● Greater access to education
- Public schools were founded for women and more women began to enter public life in the late 1800s
● Coutnering this trend was a strict form of Islamic traditionalism that opposed modernization in general

Question 42

~Foot binding

Answer 42

● Continued in Qing China, although increasingly opposed by foreign missionaries, as well as by the Taiping rebels
● Confucian traditionalism continued to place women in a secondary social position

Question 43

~Women in Japan

Answer 43

● Even the 1890 Constitution made little room for hte rights of women, who remained largely confined to a secondary status
● Industrialization in Japan created jobs for lower-class owmen, but these were low-payiny, low prestige positions

Question 44

~Hindu caste system

Answer 44

● Complete with its traditional patriarchalism
● Remained in place in South Asia, alhtough in British India, colonial authorities combatted many of its excesses, including the sati ritual

Question 45

~Napoleonic civil code

Answer 45

● Most Latin American nations based their legal systems on this
● Concerned itself even less with women’s rights than the consitutional arrangements in North America
● Industrialization progressed more slowly here than int he north, so non-agricultural working opportunities were scantier

Question 46

~Women in Latin America

Answer 46

● Over time, countries such as Argentina, Uruguay and Chile made it possible for women to gain educations
● In Chile, they could earn degress in high-status professions such as law and medicine
● Greater rights were extended to women in these nations

Question 47

~What were the social changes in this period a result of?

Answer 47

● Combination of political transformation and economic industrialization
● Most pronounced in the West, but to one degree or another, their influence spread to most parts of the globe

Question 48

~How did the class structure change?

Answer 48

● Rebelions and revolutions strove to make governemtns more representative and more responsive to people’s needs
● The extreme forms of slavery were gradually done away with
● Systems of coerced and semi-coerced labor did not disappear
● Hierarchies and caste systems tended to break down or weken, and if theyr emained in place, they heightened social discontent

Question 49

~What were examples of migration?

Answer 49

● Mass movements from Europe and China to the Americas

● Occurred in many places

Question 50

~Why was class diversification most evident in Europe and North America?

Answer 50

● Evident in many places, but was most striking in Europe and North America
● Enlightenment philosophy and the Atlantic revolutions and the gradual expansion of political representation called into question the faireness and efficiency of old social hierarchies

Question 51

~How did social classes in Latin America fuel the wars of independence?

Answer 51

● Middle-class ambitions motivate the wars of independence of the early 1800s
● Frustrations and desires of hte lower classes, especially those of mixed, black, or indigenous background turned those wars into mass movements\

Question 52

~What did the Tanzimat reforms allow in the Ottoman-dominated Middle East?

Answer 52

● A degree of liberalization and secularization
● Emphasized greater religious toleration for non-Muslim millets
● Changes were limited, and hte reforming impulse died away after the 1870s

Question 53

~What did the British authorities undermine in India?

Answer 53

● Abusive aspects of the Hindu caste system, as well as to reduce Hindu-Muslim religious strife

Question 54

~What were similar among Japan and Western industrialization?

Answer 54

● Working class conditions during Japan's early decades of industrialization remained quite harsh
● Farming population decreased relative to a new industrial working class

Question 55

~How did industrialization impact on the ways people work?

Answer 55

● Factory work and other forms of manufacturing
● Various forms of resource extraction, especially mining
● Cash-crop monoculture

Question 56

~Where did many indentrued servitude in Asia end up in and what did they do there?

Answer 56

● Often shipped abroad over great distances, to the Pacific islands, to the Americas, or to the Caribbean, hwere they were exploited as cheap labor on plantations, in mines and on contraction projects
● They planted and harvested sugar, collected guano in South America, and worked on some of America’s and Canada’s most important western railroads

Question 57

~What was a major step in the process of ending East African slave trade?

Answer 57

● Closing of the great slave market in the center of Zanzibar

Question 58

~Where were Atalntic slaves shipped to and what were they used for?

Answer 58

● During the late 1700s and early 1800s, mining, sugar cultivation and plantation agriculture in Latin America and hte Caribbean all depended heavily on African slave labor
● Slaves were also used extensively in the southern United States as domestic servants and agricultural laborers, especially for cotton production
● Both of the slaves went to Brazil, Cuba, and hte Caribbean and a comparatively small number being smuggled into the US

Question 59

~What was a turning point in ending Atlantic slave trade?

Answer 59

● Britain made the slave trade illegal in 1808
● Slavery itself was banned in all parts of hte British Empire by 1834
● Convinced all of Europe and the Ameircas to outlaw the slave trade

Question 60

~How did West African states react to ending Atlantic slave trade?

Answer 60

● They were enriched and empowered by cooperating with the slave trade
● Helped to keep it going

Question 61

~What did Britain do to try to stop the Atlantic slae trade?

Answer 61

● In the early 1800s, the British governemnt dispatched the Royal Navy to blockade the West African shoreline
● Hunt down slave ships, and bombard hte coastal forts of West African kingdoms that supported the slave trade
● Less enthusiastically, France and the US joined in these expeditions

Question 62

~What did both slave trades do to Africa?

Answer 62

● Human suffering, population loss, stirring up of tribal warfare, disruption of traditional trade networks and economic proactices
● SHarp financial slump suffered by those African states that had profited from slvaery
- Now, having lost their ill-gotten gains, were let more vulnerable to foreign takeover by their economic weakness
● Antislavery interventions carried out by Britain and other nations gave EUropeans a pretext for invovling themselves in Africa’s affairs and thinkin of military action there as legitimate

Question 63

~Why did large numbers of Europeans and Asians relocate to the Ameircas during the 1800s?

Answer 63

● The US’ reputation as a land of freedom and economic opportunity drew millions of immigrants from Europe and Asia during the 1800s
● Canada, Argentina, and Chile also took in many immigrants

Question 64

~How did the status of women grew (althought still secondary)?

Answer 64

● In the West, a greater awareness of the unequal treatment of women began to spread, starting around the late 1700s
● Stimulated by the theories of Enlightenment philosophy, as well as active role played by women in the American and French revolutions

Question 65

~What did the women’s rights movements in the 1830s focus on?

Answer 65

● Reforming laws to allow women to own property and file for divorce
● initial effort did not reap quick results, as women did not gain full property rights in Britain until 1870, Germany until 1900, and France until 1907
● Soon seeking better access to higher education and jobs, as well as equal pay

Question 66

~What were the first professions open to women beyond domestic servitude?

Answer 66

● Teacher and nurse

Question 67

~What political movements did women involve in?

Answer 67

● Campaign for temperance
● Abolition of slavery
● Aid for orphans and the poor

Question 68

~Why did number of working women decline after the mid-1800s?

Answer 68

● Wages for industrial workers rose, making usch jobs more dsirable to men
● new laws restricted hte number of hours women and children could work

Question 69

~What were the general trend in woemn’s equality in non-Western societies?

Answer 69

● Education levle of women rose, as did the extent of property rights
● Women worked, especially in certain occupations, such as agricultural labor, domestic service and nursing
● Lower-class women tended to enter the workplace as they industrialize
● Arrival fo Western colonists often affected gender roles and family relations in areas that fell under the influence

Question 70

~Why were many African families broken up as they came under colonial control?

Answer 70

● Husbands worked in mines or on plantations, or served in native military units, while wives stayed behind in villages to grow food and care for children
● When Western commercial employers and colonial officials gave out jobs and introduced new property laws, they tendd to favor male heads of household
- Left women with fewer economic opportunities and undercut matrilineal authority in those parts of Africa where it had prevailed