Sports Psychology Flashcards
What is personality ?
Is the sum total of an individuals characteristics which make them unique
Why is personality of interest to sports psychologists ?
Can help identify who might be successful in sport
Can help work out how an athlete may act in a specific situation
To identify who may benefit from working with a sports psychologist
Squad selection
What is a trait ?
A characteristic of personality, said to be inherited from birth
How can a coach use trait theory ?
Can predict player behaviour + how to deal with them
If you know how they cope under stress they can be played in tense game situations
What are the study findings of trait theory ?
Extroverts prefer high action sports
Introverts prefer individual activities
More stable people participate in sport
What are the criticisms of trait theory ?
People don’t always act as expected, personality can change
People learn how to act from the ‘environment’
What is Social Learning Theory ?
All behaviour is learned from others (family, friends, role models)
What is modelling ?
Copying the behaviour of others through observation
What is social reinforcement ?
The behaviour is reinforced by another person
How does Social Learning Theory work ?
Observe -> Identify -> Reinforce -> Copy
What are the criticisms of Social Learning Theory ?
We inherit some characteristics from birth
We might observe certain behaviours of role models but we may not copy them
What is the psychological core ?
This is the ‘real you’
Beliefs, values, attitudes + self worth that remain more or less permanent
What is the typical behaviour ?
The usual manner that we respond to certain situations
This is learned and stored as experience
What is the role related behaviour ?
This is the ‘surface’ of personality
Our actual response to different situations (based on how we feel + the situation we are in)
An individual may act ‘out of character’
What is the equation for behaviour ?
Behaviour = function (personality x environment)
What is the sceptical approach to behaviour ?
Believe you cannot use personality to predict a performers behaviour
What is the credulous approach to behaviour ?
Believe you can use personality to predict a performers behaviour
How can a coach use interactionist theory ?
Predict unacceptable behaviour
Identify who needs to work with a sports psychologist
Can identify aspects of personality/ behaviour to be changed
Can help avoid specific situations
Can help a performer to deal with a situation
What is an attitude ?
Ideas charged with emotion (positive + negative) which predispose a class of actions
to a particular social situation
How are attitudes formed ?
Socialisation
Conditioning
Familiarity
Past Experiences
What is affective in the ‘Triadic Model’ ?
Our emotional response or feelings
What is behaviour in the ‘Triadic Model’ ?
Our intended or actual behaviour
What is cognitive in the ‘Triadic Model’ ?
: The knowledge, thoughts, ideas,
information we have on the attitude object
How do we make sure a performer has a positive attitude ?
Fun, enjoyable experiences, negative attitudes and challenged/ discussed
How can you change a performers attitude ?
Persuasive communication and Cognitive dissonance
What is persuasive communication ?
You persuade/ encourage to change their attitude by talking to them
What is cognitive dissonance ?
When individuals are challenged by evidence
that is not consistent with their assumptions
What is arousal ?
‘An energised state, a readiness to perform, a drive to achieve’
What are cognitive responses to arousal ?
Stress, negative self talk, anxiety, worry, increases focus
What are somatic responses to arousal ?
Increases body temperature + heart rate + breathing rate, shaking, tense muscles
What is drive theory ?
As arousal increases so does performance (its linear)
What happens to drive theory when arousal
is high ?
The higher the arousal level, the more likely a performer is to bring about their dominant
response
When applying drive theory, what needs to
be taken into account ?
The skill that needs to be completed
What is inverted U theory ?
Performance levels will be at their highest at the optimal point of arousal
How can inverted U theory also impact performance ?
If arousal is too high/ low performance will be lower
What happens when the performer is under
aroused in the inverted U theory ?
Lack of attention/ concentration + poor performance
What happens when the performer is moderately aroused in the inverted U theory ?
Selective attention, concentrating, good performance
What happens when the performer is over
aroused in the inverted U theory ?
Anxious, misses cues, makes poor decisions, may be aggressive
What is catastrophe theory ?
As arousal rises towards an athletes threshold, they experience a dramatic drop in performance
What 2 things need to be present for catastrophe theory to work ?
Relies on the need for both arousal and cognitive anxiety to achieve optimal performance
What does catastrophe theory show ?
Shows that recovery is possible, but recovery time will vary
What does the Zone of Optimal Functioning
display ?
The relationship between stress, anxiety and arousal
What is the Zone of Optimal Functioning dependent on ?
Individuals perform optimally at different levels, depending on personality, task and stage of learning
What does the Zone of Optimal Functioning
highlight that other arousal theories don’t ?
Not all athletes optimal performance is at the top of the inverted U
How does personality influence the Zone of
Optimal Functioning ?
Extroverts - perform well when aroused
Introverts - perform best at low arousal levels
How does the task influence the Zone of
Optimal Functioning ?
Simple/ Gross - performed better in high arousal
Complex/ Fine - performed better in low arousal
How does a performers stage of learning
influence the Zone of Optimal Functioning ?
Autonomous - perform better in high arousal
Cognitive/ Associative - perform better in low arousal
What are the characteristics of peak flow ?
Clear goals, task focused, belief in their ability, subconscious self control
When does peak flow happen ?
Positive mental attitude, confident performer, optimum arousal, anxiety controlled, balanced emotional state, optimum environmental conditions, confidence in your training + preparation
What can disrupt peak flow ?
Not at optimum arousal level, injury, fatigue, lack of challenge, poor officials, hostile crowd
What is anxiety ?
‘State of nervousness and worry, a negative response to a threatening sporting situation’
What causes anxiety ?
Media, audience, importance of event, level of opposition, timing, money
What is eustress ?
One player sees a chance to show their ability and win the event
What is distress ?
One player worries about making a mistake or playing poorly which will let his team down and cause them to loose
What is cognitive anxiety ?
Psychological responses (thoughts + worries)
What is somatic anxiety ?
Physiological responses (sweating + vomiting)
What is competitive trait anxiety ?
Performer perceives all competitive situations as threatening regardless of then importance of the event
What is competitive state anxiety ?
Level of anxiety during competitive situations which may change throughout a game
What is a questionnaire ?
A set of written questions used to assess a performers level of anxiety
What is observation ?
Watching a performer to spot the symptoms of increased anxiety
What is physiological methods ?
Using technology to measure physiological changes when the performer is in a stressful situation
What is centring / breathing control ?
Deep breathing/ diaphragmic breathing
May involve repeating key words/ mantra
What is biofeedback ?
Measuring physiological responses
Learn to recognise and control anxiety responses
What is Progressive Muscle Relaxation (PMR) ?
Often combined with effective breathing control
Focus on specific muscle groups/ working inwards from periphery
Contract muscles - hold and relax
What is negative thought stopping ?
Use of cue/ action / word
This redirects your attention away from negative thoughts to positive ones
What is positive self talk ?
Used when negative thoughts occur - replace them with positive statements about performance
What is goal setting ?
Directs your attention away from the source of the stress and onto an achievable target
What is imagery ?
Creates a mental picture of a relaxing environment to reduce stress
Recreate successful image of past performance in mind
What is visualisation ?
During training, create a mental picture of performing the skill correctly
Include negative feelings which may occur so they can be dealt with in real scenarios
What is mental rehearsal ?
Going over movements of a task in the mind before performing them
Ingrain the skill sequence into memory
Important when skills are serial and closed
What is attentional control ?
Chaining the focus of attention to detect only relevant cues (cue utalisation) - block out distraction
What is aggression ?
Is any form or behaviour directed towards the goal of harming or injuring another living being who is motivated to avoid such treatment
What are the characteristics of aggression ?
Intention to harm
Outside of the rules
Out-of-control
Hostile
Deliberate
Reactive
What are the characteristics of assertion ?
Controlled
Well motivated
Goal directed
Not intended to harm
Generally within the rules
What is instinct theory ?
All performers are born with an ‘aggressive instinct’ (genetically inherited)
According to instinct theory, how does aggression occur ?
If provoked
According to instinct theory, how do you remove aggression ?
Through a cathartic release
What are the criticisms of instinct theory ?
Aggression is not always as a result of being provoked
Aggression is often learned from others
Sport tends to increase aggression, not release it
Performers can show aggressive behaviour when not playing sports
Scientists have not identified any biological basis for this theory
What is the frustration-aggression hypothesis ?
Drive towards a goal -> obstacle -> frustration -> inevitable aggression -> success without punishment -> catharsis
OR
inevitable aggression -> unable to release
aggression or punishment -> frustration
What does the frustration-aggression hypothesis suggest about aggression ?
Aggressive characteristics are innate
What are the criticisms of frustration- aggression hypothesis ?
Not all frustration leads to aggression
Not all aggression is caused by frustration
It does not account for situational factors or individual differences/ environment
What is social learning theory in relation to
aggression ?
Aggression is not innate (inherited) it is learned
Observe -> Identify -> Reinforce -> Copy
What are the criticisms of social learning
theory in relation to aggression ?
Some aggressive acts are reactive / instinctive
We don’t always copy others being aggressive because we have a conscience - morals
What is a praise of social learning theory in
relation to aggression ?
Many aggressive acts are copied especially if these acts are reinforced
What is ‘aggressive cue hypothesis/ theory’ ?
Goals blocked and frustration -> increased arousal -> aggressive cue present -> aggression likely
OR
Goals blocked and frustration -> increased arousal -> no aggressive cue present -> aggression unlikely
What can aggressive cues be ?
People associated with being aggressive (rivals, fans, opponents)
Sport associated with being aggressive
Places associated with aggression (history)
Objects associated with aggression (bats)
What does ‘aggressive cue hypothesis/ theory’ state ?
That innate characteristics, social learning and aggressive cues all determine if an aggressive act
What does ‘aggressive cue hypothesis/ theory’ account for ?
It accounts for different responses to similar situations, one may react, one may not
What are the strategies to control/ reduce aggressive behaviour ?
Positives reinforcement of non - aggressive acts/ behaviour
Punish aggressive acts
Removals from situations that could lead to aggression
Techniques to reduce frustration/ triggers
Develop decision making techniques
Triggers / objects of aggression introduced to training
What is motivation ?
Desire to succeed that occurs within a performer or because extrinsic rewards
What are the factors of motivation ?
Increased enjoyment
Attention from friends/ family
Winning
Aesthetics
Prizes
Praise
Money
Pride
What are intrinsic motivation ?
The desire to achieve success that occurs within the performer
What are the three parts of intrinsic motivation ?
Being motivated by accomplishment
Being motivated by stimulation
Being motivated by knowledge of your performance or learning a new skill
What is the effect of intrinsic motivation on performance ?
High intrinsic motivation means you carry on performing even when you lose/ don’t get rewards
Being too motivated can lead to overtraining and decreased performance
Intrinsic motivation is stronger and lasts longer than extrinsic motivation
What are the characteristics of a Need To Achieve (NACH) performer ?
Takes on challenges
High task persistence
Enjoy being evaluated / judged
Welcome feedback
Want to improve/ be the best
Takes risks (confident)
Approach behaviour
Not afraid to fail
Attributes success internally
What are the characteristics of a Need To Avoid Failure (NAF) performer ?
Avoids challenges
Dislikes failure
Low confidence
Avoidance behaviour
Give up easily
Avoids 50/50 challenges
Selects tasks that are very easy or very hard to protect their self esteem
What is the Incentive value of Success (IS) ?
Shame/ pride/ sense of achievement following the result
What is the Probability of Success (PS) ?
Task difficulty/ how likely success is
What is the equation for achievement motivation ?
Achievement motivation = Drive to succeed - the fear of failure
What are ‘Ego -oriented’ individuals ?
Success if when you have beaten others to show you are the best
What are ‘Task -oriented’ individuals ?
Success is when you have performed well in relation to your own ability
How do ‘Ego -oriented’ individuals improve their performance ?
Set goals to allow comparison with others to be made (performer easily discouraged/ select easier tasks
How do ‘Task -oriented’ individuals improve their performance ?
Set goals related to your own performance ( = high intrinsic motivation/ positive attitude)
How can a coach develop approach behaviour ?
Allow success/ positive experiences
Reinforcement/ support from significant others
Reduce punishment
Gradually increase task difficulty whilst ensuring tasks are challenging
Raise levels of self confidence and avoid learned helplessness
Set performance/ process goals that are achievable with effort
Use attributions correctly - failure (extrinsic / unstable), success (intrinsic / stable)
What is social facilitation ?
Influence or presence of others that impact on performance or increase arousal levels
What is social inhibition ?
The negative effect of the audience on performance
Who are the audience ?
Those watching (silently)
Who are co-actors ?
They are performing the same task, but are not in direct competition
Who are competitive co-actors ?
They are performing the same tasks, but are in direct competition
Who are social reinforcers ?
Direct influences, eg coach, crowd
What are the strategies to combat social inhibition ?
Train in front of a crowd (build crowd size of crowd gradually)
Improve selective attention and cut out the effect of the audience
Reduce the importance of the event to lower arousal levels
Avoid over evaluation of performance (build up gradually)
Encourage team mates to be supportive
Mental rehearsal/ imagery/ visualisation
Other stress management techniques
Goal setting
Ensure skills are over-learned/ highly skilled/ autonomous phase
Use attributions correctly
What is the home field advantage ?
Support from crowd increases confidence
Increased anxiety of away team (hostile chanting)
Over arousal/ anxiety of away : more fouls
Familiarity of venue increases confidence
Social facilitation/ social inhibition
Adopt familiar style of play in familiar environment (fluency)
What is a group ?
Groups are social aggregates that involve mutual awareness and the potential for interaction
What are the characteristics that are needed for a group to form a ‘bond’ ?
Two or more people interacting (working together to complete a task)
A collective identity
A shared sense of purpose/ goal
A clear structure for communication
What happens in the groups formation stage of Forming ?
They get to know each other
Assess how you fit into the group
Assess individuals strengths and weaknesses
What happens in the groups formation stage of Storming ?
Conflict to establish positions and roles within the groups
What happens in the groups formation stage of Norming ?
Conflicts resolved
Agreement of roles
Team co-operates
Stability
Collective goals
What happens in the groups formation stage of Performing ?
Players interacting and working together to achieve goals
Roles established
Mutual Support
What happens in the groups formation stage of Adjourning/ Mourning ?
Task is complete and team breaks up
What can influence the time taken to form a group ?
Group size
Attitude of the players
Experience of the players
Complexity of the task
Time available
What is a co-active group ?
They are doing the same thing at the same time (rowers)
What is an interactive group ?
Each athlete has a different role with must be integrated with other team members
What is group cohesion ?
The extent to which a group works together in pursuit of a common goal
What are the two types of group cohesion ?
Task cohesion and Social cohesion
What is task cohesion ?
Team members work together to successfully complete a task
What are the characteristics of task cohesion ?
Common team goal - accepted and valued by all
Good communication
Understand own and each others roles
Most important within interactive team games
What is social cohesion ?
Involves the interaction of individuals and how well they relate to each other
What are the characteristics of social cohesion ?
Interpretational relationships and trust
Players react positively by relaxing and making friends
Most important in co-active sports
How can a coach build team cohesion ?
Practice/training to ensure all understand the tactics
Give individuals specific responsibility/set goals
Explain specific roles within the team
Give feedback/video analysis of performance/ reinforcement
Develop peer support/encourage each other/encourage open
discussion/an effective leader
Vary practice to maintain motivation/train in small groups
Improve fitness levels
Team bonding exercises/social outings
Avoid social cliques
Create a group identity eg team kit
Develop self-confidence/self-efficacy/self-esteem/ credit use of
attributions
Maintain team stability if possible/limit change
What is Steiner’s Model (1972) ?
Actual productivity + potential productivity - losses due to faulty processes
What is actual productivity ?
How the team actually performs
What is potential productivity ?
The best possible performance of the group, considering the resources available and players’ ability
What are losses due to faulty processes ?
Communication losses - poor team work, tactics and communication
Motivational losses - loss of motivation, concentration and low self confidence an cause low effort
What is social loafing ?
When individuals in a group lose motivation and hide within the group, not putting in 100% effort
What can cause social loafing ?
Lack of confidence
Poor leadership
Goals meaningless
Negative attitude
Poor fitness level
Cliques
Efforts gone unnoticed
What is the Ringlemann effect ?
Noticed that social loafing occurs when the group size increases
What are the strategies to improve social loafing ?
Recognise/ reward players efforts
Use statistics (tackle count, distance run, assists)
Goal setting
Performance and process goals (not just outcome)
Video analysis
Increased fitness level
Small sided games (accountability)
